In text linguistics, the units from which the whole is built are considered to be those elements that possess all or most of the main features inherent in the whole.
In relation to our topic, the starting point in this sense is the text and its features: coherence, integrity, semantic and stylistic unity and other categorical features of the text.
Most of these features are found in paragraphs, complex syntactic wholes, and partly in sentences.
Paragraph(German Absatz, lit. - indentation):
1) indentation in the initial line of printed or handwritten text.
2) A component of a coherent text, consisting of one or more phrases (sentences) and characterized by the unity and relative completeness of the content. The terms “period”, “complex syntactic whole”, “supra-phrasal unity” also have a meaning close to this.
Offer is the second structural unit of the text. For a long time it was not considered at all the only unit of speech, until the famous Russian linguist A.M. Peshkovsky did not show that coherent speech is an alternation of single sentences and superphrasal unities.
The identification of complex (supraphrasal) syntactic unities as units of coherent speech revealed that sentences act in speech both as “building material” for superphrasal unities and as their functionally equivalent equivalents.
Sentences within the text are connected to each other according to certain laws, embodying the rules for the development of thoughts.
The main means that create the semantic and grammatical integrity of the text are a single topic, a way of linking sentences, the nature of syntactic structures, word order, stress, thematic vocabulary, repetition of words (lexical repetition), cognates, pronouns, conjunctions, etc.
The semantic integrity of the text is ensured by the theme. An overall theme may combine a number of smaller subtopics.
It is the topic that determines some of the syntactic features of the text.
In the text, sentences can be connected by a chain or parallel connection.
Chain is called the sequential connection of the second sentence with the first, the third with the second, etc. For example:
All the benefits and joys of life are created by labor. Without work you cannot live honestly. From an early age // learn to be true to your word. True to the word //-- your personal honor.(According to V. Sukhomlinsky.)
The chain connection of sentences in the text is due to the alternation of the given and the new. The author's thoughts develop sequentially. What was new in the first sentence becomes given in the second, and so on.
Parallel connection is the subordination of the second, third, etc. sentences to the first. The first sentence contains the topic, gives, as it were, a general outline of the picture, and all subsequent sentences are both semantically and grammatically connected with it. They detail the overall picture and specify the topic of the text. For example: In my entire life I don’t remember such an autumn. September has passed-- clear blue, warm like May, with charming mornings and thoughtful purple sunsets. In the mornings, fish splash in the Volga, and large circles spread across the mirror surface of the river. High in the sky, belated cranes fly by, coursing. The left bank turns from green to yellow, then reddish-golden.(V. Nekrasov.)
Strengthens the semantic and grammatical connection of parts of the text lexical repetition(different forms of repeated words are possible).
For example: A person should remember from childhood, from school, on what land he was born. He must remember that he has responsibilities to this great, most beautiful land in the world, which is called the Motherland. If she is in mortal danger, he must come to her defense and fight, if necessary, to the death.
He must remember and honor the deeds of his ancestors, who did not spare their lives defending their native country, native language, and home.(N. Tikhonov.) In this text, repetition of key words I must, dear(in different forms) reinforces the theme - a person’s duty to the Motherland.
As one of the means of connecting parts of the text are used cognate words.
For example: He[Chekhov] loved laughter, but laughed with his sweet, infectious laugh only when someone else told something funny; he himself said the funniest things without the slightest smile.(I. Bunin.) Words with the same root (laughter, laughed, funny) refer to different parts of speech and are formally distinguished by morphemes. Common root laughter creates the semantic integrity of the text, different morphemes complicate the meaning of words with the same root, making them semantically richer.
The most important means of connecting parts of the text are pronouns, allowing you to eliminate unnecessary repetition of words.
For example: The swans flew in a herd from the cold side to the warm lands.They flew across the seas... One young swan flew behind everyone. His strength weakened.(L. Tolstoy.)
Used as a means of connecting parts of the text unions:
In a word you can sell, and betray, and buy,
The word can be poured into striking lead.
But We have words for all words in the language:
Glory, Motherland, Loyalty, Freedom and Honor;
I don’t dare repeat them at every step,--
Like banners in a case, I cherish them in my soul. (IN. Shefner.)
The same tools can perform different functions. For example, word order not only provides connections between parts of the text, but also allows you to highlight key words. All means of communication are not always used in the same text; the predominance of any one or more means of communication depends on the nature of the text, the individual preferences of the author, etc.
Having a topic sentence in a paragraph is important for both the writer and the reader. Such a sentence allows the writer to determine the topic of the paragraph and strictly adhere to its development in other sentences of the paragraph, and for the reader or listener it helps to determine the subject of speech and keep it in memory until it is replaced by another subject of speech.
When we write, we should begin each paragraph slightly away from the main line from which the lines begin. This grabs the reader's attention and shows him that there is a transition from one idea or topic to another.
A properly constructed paragraph must satisfy the following requirements:
1. A paragraph should present only one topic. It should include everything that is necessary for the development of the topic, including everything that is not related to this topic.
In fiction, the topic of a paragraph can be expressed not in one, but in several sentences. If a paragraph does not have its own topic sentence, this means that it is material supporting a topic or some position reflected in the previous part of the text.
The placement of sentences within a paragraph should be thoughtful. The connection of each sentence to the topic sentence of the paragraph should be clear to the reader, and each sentence should prepare the reader for the perception of the next sentence.
Sentences within a paragraph should be arranged in such a way that the most important sentence is positionally highlighted and underlined. In this sense, the beginning and end of a paragraph are most capable of emphasizing the idea expressed. Therefore, you should strive to express the main idea at the beginning or end of the paragraph.
Example paragraph:
Soon the fox managed to take revenge on the eagle. Once upon a time, people in the field sacrificed a goat to the gods. The eagle flew to the altar and carried away the burning entrails. But as soon as he brought them to the nest, a strong wind blew. And the thin old rods burst into flames. The eaglets fell to the ground. The fox ran up and ate them.
A manifestation of the unity of paragraph content is interphrase connections. In the above paragraph, interphrase connections are created, in particular:
a) conjunctions in which one of the connected components is missing in the phrase (but also);
b) the identity of the mentioned objects (to the eagle- eagle, fox - fox), expressed, for example, by substitute words (the insides are theirs), as well as zero substituents (cf. the absence of a subject with a predicate reported in the 4th phrase);
c) semantic connections of words (for example: sacrifice- altar, eagle- eaglets);
d) correlation of the types of tense forms of the predicates (in all phrases except the 2nd, the predicate is a perfective verb in the past tense form);
e) the actual division of this phrase in the context of the previous ones: (for example, in the 7th phrase there is direct word order and the absence of phrasal stress on the word fox mean that fox is the topic of this sentence, and this, in turn, is due to the fact that this fox has already been mentioned earlier).
Some interphrase connections (in particular, causal, explanatory, as well as connections based on the unity of time, place of action or the identity of characters and objects) may not have an explicit expression, but are restored in the text due to its initially specified coherence (internals- meaning the insides of a goat; flew off- this does not mean an arbitrary moment in the past, but the moment when people made a sacrifice). Conjunctive and adversative connections are often expressed by lexical-syntactic parallelism of phrases. Both individual phrases and groups of phrases can enter into interphrase connections. Thus, the 1st phrase is connected by an explanatory connection with all other phrases of the paragraph as a whole.
The connections between paragraphs within the text have the same nature, as well as the connections between phrases in a paragraph. The boundaries between paragraphs pass at points with a minimum number of interphrase connections. In the connections between paragraphs, the first phrases of the paragraph usually play the main role.
So, in the 1st phrase the word soon(begging the question then?) and the word take revenge(begging the question for what?) relate this paragraph to the previous ones.
The structure of a paragraph and the relationships between paragraphs carry meaning. A paragraph is a unit of speech, despite the ambiguity of its boundaries.
Means of communication in text
The means of connecting sentences in the text are considered at several levels: lexical, morphological, syntactic. This chapter will consider only those that are most often found in Unified State Examination tasks:
Lexical means:
| Lexical repetitions are repetitions of the same word or the same root word. | We discussed what we read for a long time book. In this book was what we were waiting for. |
| Synonyms | Bunin in his story“Easy Breathing” expressed a disturbing thought about the fate of man. Plot short stories represents an intense development of two motives: death and life. |
| Antonyms | Foe assents. Friend argues. |
| Kenning | “You surprise me, gentlemen,” said Odintsov, - but we’ll talk to you later. At dinner Anna Sergeevna again started speech about botany. |
Morphological means:
Analysis of the task.
Among sentences 25-34, find one that is connected to the previous ones using an adversative conjunction and a personal pronoun. Write the number of this offer.
(25) I don’t know how much time passed, but suddenly the night was illuminated by bright headlights, and the long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and saw my father through my eyelashes. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.
(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time afterwards he suffered from double pneumonia.
(32)…My children are perplexed why, when decorating the Christmas tree, I always cry. (33) From the darkness of the past, my father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if he secretly wants to see his daughter among the dressed-up crowd of children and smile cheerfully at her. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start crying.
The task includes two conditions: firstly, the sentence must begin with an adversative conjunction, and secondly, it must contain a personal pronoun. Let's start with the first condition. From the list of sentences, only one begins with a conjunction - sentence No. 31. It also contains a personal pronoun. He.
Thus, the correct answer is sentence No. 31.
Practice.
1. Among sentences 1–8, find one that is connected to the previous one using lexical repetition and a personal pronoun. Write the number of this offer.
(1) Then the question arises: why is man so deaf to the inner call of self-preservation? (2) Why does he break into doors that have a “No Trespassing” sign on them? (3) What is this? (4) Stupidity as an innate human quality? (5) A purposeless protest against all sorts of laws and rules, which feeds on the dark energy of animal instincts? (6) Or maybe an ineradicable need for knowledge? (7) A need that is as natural as the need to drink, eat, sleep... (8) Look at the history of mankind: it is all in this unyielding and steady movement beyond the line of what is permitted.
2. Among sentences 1 – 6, find one that is connected to the previous ones using a conjunction and a possessive pronoun. Write the number of this offer.
(1) Sympathy is a great human ability and need, a benefit and a duty. (2) People who are endowed with such an ability or who have alarmingly sensed a lack of it in themselves, people who have cultivated the talent of kindness, those who know how to transform sympathy into assistance, have a more difficult life than those who are insensitive. (3) And more restless. (4) But their conscience is clear. (5) As a rule, they have good children. (6) They are usually respected by others.
3. Among sentences 1 – 5, find one that is related to the previous one using a contextual synonym. Write the number of this offer.
Lexical means
| Genus-specific concepts | There are many dear Russians in this foresttrees. But first of all you notice the trunks of your loved onesbirch trees. |
| Words from one thematic group | Winter... frost... snow... snowdrifts... frost... |
| Words and phrases with the meaning of logical connections ( that's why, therefore, it follows from this, let's summarize and so on.) | Sea water contains a lot of salt.That's whyit is not suitable for cooking. |
| Lexical repetition (including cognates) | I With I enjoyed reading this book. I read for a long time, thinking about what I had already read. |
| Synonyms (including contextual ones) | Clearings floated past... Enemies fled... |
| Antonyms (including contextual) | Nature has many friends. She has significantly fewer enemies. |
| Kenning | There was a huge rainbow above the clear world. One end of the wonderful seven-color arc sank far, far behind the forests. |
Morphological means
Syntactic means
In addition to those mentioned in the text, they can also be used semantic And associative sentence connections: Evening was coming, the sun was already setting, and stuffiness did not decrease. Ephraim was exhausted and barely listened to Kuzma.(Ch.)
Distinguish chain and parallel connection of proposals.
Chain (serial) communication reflects the consistent development of thoughts, actions, events. In texts with such a connection, each new sentence is correlated with the words and phrases of the previous sentence.
At parallel communication sentences are not connected with each other, but compared or contrasted. A parallel connection is based on sentences that are identical or similar in structure, in which predicate verbs of the same tense and type are usually used.
Paragraph- this is a part of the text connected by semantic unity and highlighted by indenting the first line.
The paragraph serves to highlight a micro-topic, to move from one micro-topic to another. The sentences in a paragraph are closely related to each other logically and grammatically. Each new paragraph reflects one or another stage in the development of the action, one or another characteristic feature in the description of an object, in the characterization of the hero, one or another thought in reasoning, evidence.
Types of paragraphs: 1) logical-semantic paragraphs built on a thematic principle (a new paragraph reveals a new micro-topic). With their help, official business, scientific, and educational texts are prepared.
2) accentuation paragraphs play the role of a kind of emphasis. The technique of isolating repeated syntactic structures into separate paragraphs is especially effective. The same beginning of each of the subsequent paragraphs creates a rigid rhythm.
3) expressive paragraphs can break the logical and semantic thread of the narrative and serve the purpose of influencing the reader’s emotions and his psychological perception.
Exercise 63. Indicate the means of communication between sentences
| Elena Ivanovna and her little daughter came to the village on foot. They were walking. | |
| She spoke cheerfully; Obviously, she has long been accustomed to talking about her difficult life. And Rodion smiled too. | |
| They said that a new face had appeared on the embankment: a lady with a dog. Dmitry Dmitrich Gurov, who had lived in Yalta for two weeks and was used to it here, also became interested in new faces. | |
| He drank little and was now drunk from one glass of English bitters. This disgusting bitter drink, made from who knows what, stupefied everyone who drank it, as if it had bruised them. | |
| For a long time Nadya could hear how the servants were cleaning downstairs and how angry granny was. Finally everything became quiet. (according to Chekhov) | |
| Only in the world is there a tent shady with slumbering maples. Only in the world is there that radiant, childish, thoughtful gaze. (Fet) | |
| No smoky kitchens. No homeless streets. Twelve strikes. Four strikes. And six. And again. Gulliver. Costs. Slouching.Shoulder. On the cloud. It's hard. Leaning on. (Ant.) | |
| – Do you know what we were arguing about? – About literature, music, painting. |
Exercise 64. Break the text into paragraphs. Justify your chosen principle of division. Fill in the missing letters and add the missing punctuation marks. Do some analysis.
When you go... ashore in Naples, my daughter told me... then give this nesting doll to the first (I, and) Talian girl. Perhaps not everyone understands what a nesting doll is. This (n...) is nothing more than a wooden (n,nn) doll depicting a Russian peasant girl (beauty). The steamer docked in Naples. I went out to the embankment. I (not) forgot about (And, and) the Italian girl and carried a matryoshka doll wrapped in tissue paper. (N...) which girl I (didn’t) immediately meet. True, I could easily have missed her because I often stopped and looked into the depths of the streets facing the embankment. A girl of about ten with a thin, pale face and blonde braids was walking towards me. She was wearing an old black dress, frayed at the elbows, mended (n, nn) light stockings and old slippers. When the girl approached, I unrolled the tissue paper and took out the matryoshka doll. She saw a matryoshka doll, stopped and laughed, pressing her hands to her chest. This is how people laugh when their favorite or funny dreams come true. I handed the girl a matryoshka doll. She didn't take it. She stopped laughing, clenched her dark eyebrows and darted to the side in fear. I grabbed her hand and almost forced her to take the nesting doll. She said barely audible:
- Grazie, signoro!
A minute later, a multi-colored crowd of saleswomen were already shouting to each other around us. They left their little ones unattended. The matryoshka went from hand to hand. The crowd is r...sla. The girl was all sparkling with delight from this whole extraordinary event at the port. The customs officer walked slowly toward the crowd. He approached the girl, took the matryoshka doll from her hands and began to carefully examine it. A quiet, delighted roar passed through the crowd. The overseer instantly took out a yellow one from the green nesting doll, then a blue one, a purple one, and finally he took it out with two fingers and carefully lifted the last, smallest nesting doll - in a golden shawl. The overseer said to me in a French language, instructively and rather dryly:
– You made a small mistake, monsieur.
– You could have given this toy to not one, but six Neapolitan girls.
(According to K. Paustovsky)
Exercise 65. Read the text. Analyze the text according to the plan proposed below.
Much in Tyutchev’s poetics may seem traditional at first glance. He was not the only one, for example, who liked to compare this or that natural phenomenon with the mental state of a person. But while for others such a technique of comparison or assimilation was just a pictorial means, and, moreover, one of many, for Tyutchev it flowed from the very depths of his worldview and was, without exaggeration, the main one.
Tyutchev had an unusually lively and direct sense of nature. In some poems, speaking about her, he uses ready-made mythological images (“Spring Thunderstorm”, “Noon”). However, they not only do not exude an archaic chill, but even under his pen they acquire some kind of new vitality. Tyutchev willingly resorts to personifications (“Summer Evening”, “Spring Waters”). But even in those poems where there are no mythological images or obvious personifications, nature is depicted by him as a kind of animated whole. And this, again, is not just an artistic device. Only a poet who truly believed in the mysterious life of nature could assert with such passion and conviction:
Not what you think, nature:
Not a cast, not a soulless face -
She has a soul, she has freedom,
It has love, it has language...
Tyutchev's characteristic images are generated by the idea of the universal animation of nature. For him, the afternoon “breathes lazily”, the sky blue “laughs”, the autumn evening is illuminated with a “gentle smile of withering”, a ray of sunshine awakens the sleeping girl with a “ruddy loud exclamation”.
Tyutchev is usually called the “singer of nature.” This is how he appears before us both when he strives to philosophically comprehend the life of the universe, and when he writes, as it were, small “studies from nature,” capturing in them concretely visible signs of the outside world.
(K. Pigarev)
1) Prove that this passage of the article can be called text.
2) Compare the topic and content of the text, choose a title.
___________________________________________________
3) Determine the micro-topic of each paragraph, explain the logic of selecting paragraphs, following the development of the author’s thoughts.
4) Draw conclusions about the structure of paragraphs, find paragraph beginnings and commentary parts.
__________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 66. Prove that in the excerpts from various works presented below, the statements are connected by a parallel connection. Justify your answer. If the text contains other types of connections (serial, connection), prove it.
What kind of opera can be composed from our national motifs! Show me a people who have more songs. Our Ukraine rings with songs. Along the Volga, from the upper reaches to the sea, barge haulers sing along the entire line of drawn barges. While singing, huts are being cut from pine logs all over Rus'. Bricks are tossed from hand to hand to the songs, and cities grow like mushrooms. A Russian man swaddles, marries and is buried to the songs of women. Everything on the road: nobility and non-nobility, flies to the songs of the coachmen. By the Black Sea, a beardless, dark-skinned Cossack with a resinous mustache, loading his arquebus, sings an old song; and there, at the other end, riding on a floating ice floe, a Russian industrialist is spearing a whale, starting to sing. Don't we have anything to compose our own opera from? (N.V. Gogol)
Answer: __________
_______________________
_______________________
_____________________________________________________________________
TOPIC No. 8 TYPES OF SPEECH
Theoretical minimum
Type of speech (text)- a method of presentation chosen by the author and oriented (depending on the content of the statement and the nature of the text information) on one of the tasks: to statically depict reality, to describe it (description); dynamically reflect reality, tell about it (narration); reflect the cause-and-effect relationships of reality phenomena (reasoning). The choice of one type of speech or another to present information is subject to the communicative intentions of the author.
Description- this is a verbal image of an object, phenomenon or action through the presentation of its characteristic features by listing their signs and properties. The purpose of the description is to clearly draw a verbal picture so that the reader can visually imagine the subject of the image.
Types of description
1. Portrait– image of the character’s appearance (face, figure, clothing, demeanor, etc.): A feeling of deepest disgust flashed for a moment in the thin features of the young man. By the way, he [Raskolnikov] was remarkably good-looking, with beautiful dark eyes, dark blond, above average height, thin and slender(F. Dostoevsky);
2. D dynamic portrait, drawing the facial expression, eyes, facial expressions, gestures, pose, actions and states of the character: A feeling of deepest disgust flashed for a moment in the thin features of the young man(F. Dostoevsky);
3. Psychological picture– a description of the character’s internal state, allowing one to reveal the inner world and the hero’s emotional experiences: His eyes didn't laugh when he laughed(L.);
4. Scenery– description of nature as part of the real environment in which the action takes place: The fields are compressed, the groves are bare. // Above the water there is fog and dampness...(S. Yesenin);
5. Interior – image of the interior of the room: In the middle of the room- a table as heavy as a tomb, covered with a white tablecloth, and on it two cutlery, napkins folded in the form of papal tiaras, and three dark bottles(M. Bulgakov);
6. And image of the place and time of action: The morning dawn is just beginning to color the sky above Sapun Mountain; The dark blue surface of the sea has already cast off the darkness of the night and is waiting for the first ray to sparkle with a cheerful shine(according to L. Tolstoy);
7. Description of actions – ...I am watching the hands of Anfisa Ivanovna Vorontsova. She deftly molded a bell from clay dough, tapped it quietly with a wooden spatula - the fluffy skirt was ready. She took another piece of soft clay and carefully sculpted a torso with a head and a nose with a button.I thought a little, wondering whether to crown the future beauty with a kokoshnik, or to put on an elegant hat for her(L. Lebedev);
Artistic and journalistic description is characterized by the widespread use of means of linguistic expression (metaphors, personifications, comparisons, epithets, etc.): Through the wide span of the window, the tiled roofs of Berlin were visible - their outlines changed, thanks to the irregular internal tints of glass - and among the roofs, a distant dome rose like a bronze watermelon. The clouds flew and broke through, revealing for a moment a light, amazed autumn blue(V. Nabokov).
The leading role in the description is played by adjectives and participles, as well as denomination sentences that provide expressiveness and clarity of the image. Verbs, participles and gerunds are usually in the present tense, and the predicate is usually placed after the subject: The door to the porch is open(T. Tolstaya).
The description can be factual and creative. Factual Descriptions found in instructions, technical manuals, and various reference publications. They are distinguished, on the one hand, by dryness and lack of emotional evaluation, and on the other, by completeness, clarity, accuracy and consistency. For example: Forget-me-not (Myosotis), a genus of one-, two-, or perennial herbs of the borage family. The flowers are small, in curls, often collected in paniculate inflorescences. The corolla is wheel-shaped, with a short tube and a five-lobed limb, blue, less often white.
Creative description contains emotional, aesthetic, artistic elements. When compiling them, it is necessary to take into account several general rules: the subject must be presented separately from others (highlight it) in its unity, integrity; identify characteristic properties, and these properties are not only the most significant for the narrator, but will also not leave the addressee indifferent. For example: Forget-me-nots... What a sweet name! Deserved it. This flower has five petals, blue is blue, the sky is softer, and in the very middle there is a yellow heart. Forget-me-nots do not fade, do not fade, do not fade in the hot summer sun. Look and you won’t forget... (V. Bocharnikov)
Narration is a story, a message about an event, action, phenomenon occurring in time.
The purpose of the narrative is to give an idea of an event (a series of events) in chronological order or to show the transition of an object from one state to another. The narrative depicts events or phenomena in which actions do not occur simultaneously, but follow each other or determine each other
The composition of the narrative is subordinated to the sequence of development of the author's thoughts and the task that the author sets for himself.
The leading role in the story is played by verb forms, ensuring the unfolding of the narrative and visually representing successive actions, the course of events in time and space.
Reasoning is a verbal presentation, explanation, development, confirmation or refutation of any thought.
The purpose of reasoning is to explore an object or phenomenon, reveal its internal characteristics, consider (present to the reader) the cause-and-effect relationships of events or phenomena, convey the author’s thoughts about them, evaluate them, justify, prove or refute this or that idea or position. The peculiarity of reasoning as a type of text is that it uses not a plot (as in a narrative), but a logical principle of construction. As a rule, the composition of the argument is built by model: thesis, proof (a series of arguments that use facts, inferences, references to authorities, obviously true provisions (axioms, laws), descriptions, examples, analogies, etc.) and conclusion.
Exercise 67. In your notebook, compose two descriptive texts (factual and creative) of one of the rooms in your house, desk, view from the window, etc.
Exercise 68 Identify the types of speech in the following texts.
1. Why do you need to learn syntax? Syntax needs to be studied in order, firstly, to be able to correctly construct sentences and texts; secondly, be able to use punctuation marks correctly; thirdly, to read and speak expressively and, finally, to understand other people’s speech better and more deeply (to be able to listen to other people).
Thus, knowledge of syntax helps to improve oral and written speech.
Answer __________
2. The fire was roaring in the stove, rain was pouring into the windows. Then the last thing happened. I took the heavy lists of the novel and rough notebooks out of my desk drawer and began to burn them. This is terribly difficult to do, because paper covered with writing does not burn readily. Breaking my nails, I tore apart the notebooks, stood them up between logs and ruffled the sheets with a poker. The ashes at times overpowered me, choked the flames, but I fought against them, and the novel, stubbornly resisting, nevertheless perished. Familiar words flashed before me, yellowness uncontrollably rose from bottom to top of the pages, but the words still appeared on it. They disappeared only when the paper turned black and I furiously finished them off with a poker. (M. Bulgakov)
Answer __________
3. Where it was especially difficult for the horses, we got off the chaise and walked. The soaked snow squelched under the boots, it was hard to walk, but along the sides of the road there was still crystal ice glistening in the sun, and it was even more difficult to get through there. Only about six hours later we covered a distance of thirty kilometers and arrived at a crossing over the Elanka River... It was necessary to cross on a fragile punt that could lift no more than three people. We released the horses. On the other side, in the collective farm barn, an old, well-worn “Jeep” was waiting for us, left there in the winter. Together with the driver, we boarded the dilapidated boat, not without fear. The comrade remained on the shore with his things. They had barely set sail when water began to gush out in fountains from the rotten bottom in different places. (Sholokhov)
Answer __________
4. We are returning from a hiking trip. The sun, almost invisible through the lead-black clouds covering the sky, stands high above the horizon. Further on, the silvery mountains, shrouded in darkness, seem outlandish. A gentle breeze sways the grass that has not yet dried out. The field to our right has already been plowed, but not yet sown. Through the branches of the trees one can see the dark blue sky, and here and there gilded leaves hang on the branches. A spicy scent reminiscent of wine fills the soft air.
Answer _________________
Exercise 69. Write an argumentative essay in your notebook on one of the topics: “Why is spelling needed”, “The comma is an important punctuation mark.”
Exercise 70. In your notebook, compose a short scientific text-argument with a thesis, evidence-arguments, specific facts and conclusions. The text should reflect a logical sequence in the presentation of thoughts and be informatively rich.
Related information.
10. Determine the type of logical connection between sentences in paragraphs:
| 1. All material bodies, some smaller, others larger, change their shape. A change in body shape is called deformation. If the deformation of the body is small, then the body can be considered absolutely solid 2. One of the authors of the book “The Science of the Bicycle,” American mechanical engineer D. Wilson, came to the conclusion that the best vehicle on the Moon would be a bicycle. He even developed a project for a two-seater four-wheeled crew adapted to lunar conditions, in which astronauts would be able to travel around the Earth’s natural satellite at speeds of up to 30 km per hour. The author of the project believes that the advantages | 1) parallel 2) sequential 3) mixed 4) no connection |
|
| bicycle are reliability, convenience, independence from power sources 3. Attempts to find some pattern in all the diversity of human characters, to discover common features, were made back in antiquity. One of the most prominent doctors of Ancient Greece, Hippocrates, who lived in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e., identified four types of temperament, and this is the oldest known typology of the psyche 4. Echinacea - perennial herb one hundred medicinal plant from North America. Thanks to this, it is completely possible to prevent the onset of the disease or at least shorten its duration and reduce symptoms |
11. Determine the type of logical connection between sentences in paragraphs:
| 1. The foundation for the development of socionics was laid by Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss psychologist. His work “Psychological Types” described eight personality types with different characteristics. These eight types formed the basis of socionics 2. Shipbuilding is an industry that carries out construction of ships of all types and purposes. All this made an indelible impression on me, and already | 1) parallel 2) sequential 3) mixed 4) no connection |
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| then I decided to connect my life with the sea 3. Introverts are focused on their inner world and their relationships with the outside world. Introverts prefer to save energy and do no more than what is necessary 4. Logicians are people whose main categories of thinking are correctness, fairness, efficiency, and objectivity. Logicians “decide with their heads”, taking into account first of all facts and rules |
12. Determine the type of logical connection between sentences in paragraphs:
| 1. Ethics - those who “think with their hearts” focus primarily on relationships between people, their feelings and emotions. Ethics are able to understand other people, their needs and desires 2. Extroverts are focused on the outside world; they prefer to act and achieve significant results. At the same time, extroverts maintain internal constancy - it is better to change something around them than to change something in themselves 3. It should be noted that the effective work of the management level of a commercial company depends entirely on the level of equipment of the company’s office with electronic equipment, such as communications, copiers, etc. | 1) parallel 2) sequential 3) mixed 4) no connection |
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| Spreadsheets increase the efficiency of document flow and improve teamwork capabilities 4. In popular scientific literature, not highly specialized, but commonly used terminology is used. Terms are usually explained in the text, definitions are simplified and replaced with descriptive phrases, examples and comparisons |
13. Determine the type of logical connection between sentences in paragraphs:
| 1. Popular science literature does not aim to provide a consistent presentation of scientific truths. The explanation of the scientific situation here does not have to be supported by calculations, formulas, tables, experimental results, etc. 2. Chemical analysis of animal and plant tissues shows that they contain a variety of chemical elements that form organic compounds. The most important, vital elements are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium, sulfur, phosphorus, iron and magnesium 3. The language of popular science texts may include various elements from other styles. Epithets, metaphors, personifications, expressions are widely used. | 1) parallel 2) sequential 3) mixed 4) no connection |
14. Determine the type of logical connection between sentences in paragraphs:
| 1. Lomonosov confidently defended atomism - the doctrine of the discontinuous (granular) structure of matter, consisting of individual extremely small particles. He developed the idea that particles of matter exist in two forms: an atom (“element”) and a molecule (“corpuscle”) as some closed collection of atoms 2. The line along which a material point moves is called the trajectory of the point. If the trajectory of a point is a curved line, then the movement of the point is called curvilinear movement 3. If the trajectory of a point is a curved line, then the movement of the point is called curvilinear movement. If the trajectory of a point is a straight line, then the movement of the point is called rectilinear movement | 1) parallel 2) sequential 3) mixed 4) no connection |
| 1. Russia is not only a state... It is... a superstate, an ocean... Russia is an ocean of land, spanning a whole sixth of the world... Russia is a country of unheard-of, richest treasures that are hidden in its deep bowels for the time being . Russia is not a single race, and this is its strength. Russia is a union of races, a union of peoples speaking one hundred and forty languages, it is a free conciliarity, the unity of difference, polychromy, polyphony (From the letters of N. Roerich) 2. Introductory words and sentences help connect text information. With their help, the author expresses his attitude to the thought being expressed: confidence, assumption, doubt, addition, etc. 3. The momentum of a body is the product of the mass of the body and its speed. Momentum is a vector that coincides in direction with the velocity vector and is equal in magnitude to the product of the mass of the body and its speed. The impulse is denoted by the letter p 4. Oxides are complex substances consisting of atoms of two elements, one of which is oxygen. Oxides according to their chemical properties are divided into salt-forming and non-salt-forming | 1) parallel 2) sequential 3) mixed 4) no connection |
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| 1. Potential energy is determined up to a constant. The presence of a constant requires the preliminary establishment of a conditional zero energy reading. The zero energy level is taken to be the energy of a body lying on the surface of the Earth. 2. Garlic is believed to be beneficial. The unpleasant odor is caused by volatile dimethyl selenide, an organic derivative of selenium that is formed in the digestive tract of the eater, but is absent in the plant itself. 3. Water makes up 65% of our weight, in children - even 80%. The amount of water in different organs and tissues of our body is different. So, in the blood it contains about 83%, in the brain, heart, muscles - about 70 - 80%, and bones contain only 15 - 20% 4. Of the chemical compounds that make up the tissues of organisms, the bulk by weight is water. Water is a necessary participant in all metabolic processes. All nutrients and salts can be absorbed into the blood only when dissolved in water, just as all chemical processes in cells are possible only in the presence of water | 1) parallel 2) sequential 3) mixed 4) no connection |
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| 1. Magnetic storms are usually not considered a formidable natural phenomenon, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and typhoons. True, they disrupt radio communications in the high latitudes of the planet and make compass needles “dance” 2. People don't know who was Roman pope during the time of Galileo, but they will always know Galileo. People don't know which queen ruled England during Newton's time, but they will always know Newton. People do not know who reigned in Russia during the time of Lomonosov, but they will know Lomonosov at all times. People don’t know what kind of Kaiser was in Germany and who was the President of the USA during the time of Einstein, but humanity will carry the name of Einstein through the millennia (V.D. Plykin) 3. Secondary abstracts are written to highlight the main information of a source, for example, a textbook, scientific article or monograph. Such theses are necessary for undergraduate and graduate students for further scientific work. 4. Original abstracts are written as the primary text for an upcoming presentation at a seminar, conference or congress. Such abstracts are published in special collections | 1) parallel 2) sequential 3) mixed 4) no connection |
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| 1. Russia is not only a country of the instantaneous present. It is a country of a great past, with which it maintains an inextricable connection... Russia is a country of Byzantine domes, which give Russia unheard-of beauty, captured in Russian art... Russia is grandiose. Unique. Russia is polar. Russia - the mission of new times (From the letters of N. Roerich) 2. Water is involved in the regulation of body temperature: released through sweat, it evaporates and, cooling the body, protects it from overheating. The average need for it is 2 - 2.5 liters per day. This need is satisfied approximately as follows: 1 liter in the form of drink, 1 liter contained in food and 300 - 350 g are formed in the body as a result of chemical transformations occurring in all cells and tissues 3. The expression “fish” appeared in connection with a pop miniature about a writer of song lyrics. In order not to forget the music to which he needed to write the lyrics, he remembered the rhythm using the names of various types of fish 4. At the end of last year, the polar expedition of Danish and German researchers took place on the icebreaker Polar Star along the east coast of Greenland and 74 km from the coast among | 1) parallel 2) sequential 3) mixed 4) no connection |
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19. Determine the type of logical connection between sentences in paragraphs:
| 1. Code implies units of language that have communicative significance, i.e. words and sentences. The most important principle of information coding is the principle of redundancy. It is redundancy that provides adequate conditions for interpreting the message. 2. P.M. Tretyakov began collecting paintings by Russian artists in the 50s of the 19th century, setting himself the goal of creating a national museum of painting accessible to all levels of society. He followed the development of Russian art, making sure that everything marked by talent ended up in his collection 3. P.M. Tretyakov loved his city dearly. Since then, the collection of Russian paintings has been replenished with new canvases, a sculpture department was created, and the graphics and icon painting departments were expanded 4. Engineers and inventors of our day have found a wide variety of applications for ultrasound and infrasound. Infrasound turned out to be very | 1) parallel 2) sequential 3) mixed 4) no connection |
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| convenient for long-distance underwater communication, for quick detection of underwater obstacles. Ultrasound effectively cleans the surface of various crystals from various contaminants. |
20. Indicate the sequence of sentences in the paragraph, taking into account the need for a logical connection between sentences:
1. In the Middle Ages, a new digital system came to Europe - 1
ma, which was called Arabic, since it was the Arabs who contributed to its spread
2. So, 555 means 5 units + 5 tens + 5 hundreds
3. In the Arabic system, each number had a separate symbol, which was not a letter of the alphabet, as in the ancient Greek language, and had a positional value
4. In fact, this system was invented in India
21. Indicate the sequence of sentences in the paragraph, taking into account the need for a logical connection between sentences:
1. For many centuries, the beginning of the year in Rus' was considered the first of March, but in 1492 the beginning of the year was moved to the first of September
2. In Rus', the Julian calendar (introduced under Julius Caesar in 46 BC) was adopted at the end of the 10th century in connection with Epiphany
3. By the decree “On the introduction of the Western European calendar in the Russian Republic”, the Gregorian calendar was established from February 14 (1), 1918, and dates began to be indicated according to the so-called “new style”
4. But the countdown of time was carried out “from the creation of the world,” which was attributed to 5508 BC. e.
5. They differ from old style dates by 13 days.
6. With the advent of the decrees of Peter I “On the writing henceforth of Genvar from the 1st day of 1700 in all papers of the year from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the creation of the world” and “On the celebration of the New Year”, the new year begins on the first of January
The answer to the second question of the lecture - types of connections between sentences in the text - will allow us to explain how they are connected, how a single speech work is formed.
It is known that sentences can be related sequentially, as if in a chain: the second - with the first, the third - with the second, etc. This connection is called a chain connection. In this case, the connection is carried out mainly through 1) repetition, the same word, 2) personal pronouns, words that are similar in meaning, 3) conjunctions.
For example: “Precision and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them brilliant expressions serve no purpose” (A. Pushkin). Behind the house there was an abandoned pond. The pond was completely covered with greenery. Here the repetition is expressed in verbal form, but the connection can also be established using semantic repetition in the form of a periphrasis: Morning. The fog cleared. The sun was already high above the mountains.
Chain communication is used in texts of different genres and styles of speech. This is the most common way to connect sentences. Its wide distribution is explained by the fact that it most closely corresponds to the specifics of thinking, the peculiarities of combining judgments; it is found where thought develops linearly: both in descriptive texts and in narrative texts, but especially in reasoning texts of the scientific style of speech.
Another type of connection between sentences is parallel. This connection is carried out without connecting words, but at the same time all sentences, starting from the second, are both semantically and grammatically related to the first. They seem to expand and concretize its meaning. The order of the main members in them is usually the same as in the first sentence. For example: Our loyalty was tested with a hot iron. Our pride was tested by tanks and bombs(I. Ehrenburg).
Very often, some members of the sentences being connected have the same lexical expression. In this case, the parallel connection is enhanced anaphora. This is an artistic means of language, which is characterized by unity of beginning, repetition of the first word in sentences. But anaphora is an optional condition for parallel communication. Such a connection can be achieved by parallelism in the syntactic structure of sentences: Small branches were bent to the ground. Yellow leaves were carried far to the side.(Impersonal sentences.) Parallel connections are used in expressive texts, in texts of artistic and journalistic style.
So, in any text there is cohesion, a connection of sentences. Just as sentences are constructed according to certain syntactic patterns, in the same way sentences are combined according to certain syntactic rules. Language dictates to us not only the rules for the formation of words, phrases and sentences, but also the rules for combining independent sentences. This knowledge is important for mastering coherent speech, i.e. the ability to construct your own statement. A breakdown in communication is regarded as a violation of the normality of text construction.
It was shown above how independent sentences are combined. Now you need to find out what independent sentences are combined into. Sounds are combined into words, words into phrases, and sentences into paragraphs.
A group of sentences, united in meaning and grammatically and expressing a relatively complete thought, is called in linguistics complex syntactic whole, superphrasal unity, component, paragraph, prose stanza.
We will stick to the term paragraph (indentation at the beginning of the line, red line). By placing a paragraph, we note that a new thought begins in the text. This is a kind of breakdown of the text that allows us to concentrate on one or another thought of the author. Correct paragraph division is also important because it is generally human nature to divide information and perceive it in parts.
In other words, with the help of a paragraph we divide the text into stanzas - the smallest, relatively complete, semantic, structural parts of the whole speech work.
A paragraph as a unit of text has its own composition: a beginning containing the beginning of a thought, a micro-theme; then follows the middle part - the development of the thought of the topic, and then comes the conclusion - the ending, which, as a rule, is specially highlighted, since it is necessary to emphasize that the development of the thought of the paragraph ends. The components that organize a paragraph play different roles.
The greatest freedom of construction is usually characterized by the first sentence of a paragraph, or the beginning, where special syntactic means are used to formalize the moment of the beginning of a thought. The reason can be presented as:
- problem statement,
– question,
- example,
– notes on the importance of the topic,
- quotes.
Other sentences are less independent structurally and semantically. Only the first sentence can be considered freely constructed. The structure of the second sentence and subsequent ones is largely determined and conditioned by the relationship to the first. The sentences in the middle part are not formalized by special means: they are attached to the beginning through a chain or parallel connection.
There are other types of connection of sentences in a paragraph, for example, connecting ones, characterized by greater freedom in their organization and content, greater independence as part of the whole. They are typical for literary texts, which are not the subject of our analysis.
Depending on the type of connection between sentences, chain and parallel paragraphs are distinguished. Chains play a big role in coherent speech. Paragraphs with chain connections make up the bulk (80-85%) of the verbal fabric of the text in all styles of speech.
The bottom border of the paragraph - the ending - is usually highlighted especially. The most common types of endings are:
– conclusions, which contain all the provisions discussed in the text;
– repetition ending, which makes the speech emphatically complete;
- quote.
Some paragraphs are called circular paragraphs, since their beginning and ending completely or partially coincide. They are more often used in the genres of journalistic style than scientific ones, because they are distinguished by emotional overtones.
For example: I crossed Siberia from... to.... Visited... Saw… . Found out... I crossed all of Siberia and realized... .
So, we found out that the paragraph is the basic unit of text. We realized that each step forward from word to text leads to an enlargement of the unit of our analysis. In a phrase, such a unit is a word, in a sentence - a member of a sentence, in a paragraph - a sentence, in a text - paragraphs.
Means of text coherence:
1. Lexical means:
– lexical repetition – repetition of a word or word form, cognate words to connect sentences (The winds did not blow in vain, // The thunderstorm did not come in vain);
– synonymous replacement ( Autumn is unusually good in September. The sun is still warming the earth at this time...);
– words of one thematic group ( There are many Karamazovs in our lives, but still they do not determine the course of the ship).
2. Grammatical means:
– unity of aspectual and tense forms of the verb, that is, in one text, as a rule, verbs are used in the form of one aspect and one tense. If you start a story in the past tense, then you will continue it as well;
– pronominal substitution ( Once upon a time there was the city of Brest. He was moved to the side...);
– conjunctions, particles, introductory words, modal words quite often act as a means of coherence, they allow you to maintain the logic of the text ( The photo shows the Brest Fortress. Or rather, only its small, central part);
– adverbs and words with spatial and temporal meaning (today, ahead, nearby, etc.): Today the ring is broken in many places. Until the forty-first year it was continuous...;
- sentences-clips, which do not carry any semantic load, are intended specifically to connect sentences. These include, for example, the proposal This will be discussed below.
3. Stylistic means:
– words, word forms that emphasize either the emotional coloring of the entire text or the homogeneity of words for a given text (for example, terms in a scientific text)
– tropes and stylistic figures.
4. Intonation means (pauses, speech rhythm, intonation).
5. Graphics (punctuation marks, red line, fonts, highlighting).
Dismemberment of the text.
- offers,
– paragraphs,
– paragraphs,
– sections,
– subchapters,
– pages, etc.
So, the types of communication in the text are varied. The structure of the text includes a number of components: sentences, paragraphs, paragraphs, etc.