Adams John

Adams, John (John Adams) (November 30, 1735-07/04/1826) - 2nd President of the United States, successor of George Washington, in contrast to whom he can be classified not so much as a political practitioner, but as a political theorist. Born in Massachusetts into a farmer's family, he graduated from Harvard University, practiced law, and became one of the most popular lawyers in Boston.

Adams John Quincy

Adams, John Quincy Adams (07/11/1767-02/23/1848) - 6th President of the United States. Studied in Holland, France, USA (Harvard). In con. In the 18th and early 19th centuries he joined the federalists (as the federalist criticized T. Paine’s pamphlet “The Rights of Man”), but in 1807 he broke with them. US Minister to Holland and Prussia (1794-1801); Congressman (1802); Senator from Massachusetts (1803-1808); the first US envoy to Russia (1809-1814). Through Adams, Alexander I in 1813 proposed Russian mediation in resolving the Anglo-American conflict.

Admiral Nelson Horatio

Nelson, Horatio (Horatio Nelson) 09/129/1758-10/21/1805) - English naval commander.

Horatio Nelson was born into a clergyman's family in north Norfolk. At the age of 12 he went to the navy. In 1773, as part of an expedition, Horatio sailed the northern seas. His naval service began during the war with France. In 1793

Nelson was appointed captain of the 64-gun ship Agamemnon. As part of the English squadron, Agamemnon guarded the Mediterranean Sea from French ships. Already in the first months of the war, Nelson's best character traits emerged - courage and strategic talent. On February 14, 1797, he participated in the Battle of St. Vincent, doing a lot for the victory of the English fleet, and became a rear admiral. In one of the battles, Horatio was wounded and lost his right arm.

Andrássy Gyula

Andrassy, ​​Gyula, Count (03/03/1823-18/02/1890) - Hungarian politician and diplomat. After the defeat of the Hungarian revolution of 1848-1849, in which he took an active part, Andrássy emigrated to France. Gyula was sentenced to death in absentia, but was subsequently amnestied and returned to Hungary in 1858.

Benjamin Disraeli

Disraeli, Benjamin (Benjamin Disraeli) (12/21/1804-04/19/1881) - famous British statesman and political figure, writer. The son of the writer I. Disraeli, a Jewish emigrant who converted to Christianity. In the works “Vivian Gray”, “The Young Duke” and others, Disraeli masterfully noted the peculiarities of the country’s political life and promoted conservative principles (defense of the crown, church, aristocracy).

Blanks Louis Auguste

Blanqui, Louis Auguste Blanqui (02/08/1805-01/01/1881) - French revolutionary, utopian communist. Louis was educated at the Lycée Charlemagne in Paris. His passion for republican-democratic ideas brought him into the ranks of opponents of the Restoration regime (1814-1830). An active participant in the July Revolution of 1830, the Republican Blanqui became an implacable opponent of the monarchy of Louis Philippe. In the 1930s was the organizer and leader of secret republican societies that advocated the creation of a democratic republic and the elimination of exploitation.

Dictatorships, coups, revolutions, terrible poverty of some and fantastic wealth of others, and at the same time - exuberant fun and optimism of ordinary people. This is how most Latin American countries in the 20th century can be briefly described. And don’t forget about the amazing synthesis of different cultures, peoples and beliefs.

The paradoxes of history and the riotous color inspired many writers of this region to create genuine literary masterpieces that enriched world culture. We will talk about the most striking works in our material.

Captains of the sand. Jorge Amado (Brazil)

One of the main novels of Jorge Amado, the most famous Brazilian writer of the 20th century. “Captains of the Sand” is the story of a gang of street children who engaged in theft and robbery in the state of Bahia in the 1930s. It was this book that formed the basis of the film “Generals of the Sand Quarries,” which was extremely popular in the USSR.

Adolfo Bioy Casares (Argentina)

The most famous book by Argentine writer Adolfo Bioy Casares. A novel that deftly balances on the brink of mysticism and science fiction. The main character, fleeing persecution, ends up on a distant island. There he meets strange people who pay absolutely no attention to him. Watching them day after day, he learns that everything that happens on this piece of land is a holographic movie recorded a long time ago, virtual reality. And it is impossible to leave this place... while the invention of a certain Morel is working.

Senor President. Miguel Angel Asturias (Guatemala)

Miguel Angel Asturias - winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature for 1967. In his novel, the author portrays a typical Latin American dictator - Señor President, in which he reflects the whole essence of cruel and senseless authoritarian rule, aimed at enriching himself through oppression and intimidation of ordinary people. This book is about a man for whom ruling a country means robbing and killing its inhabitants. Remembering the dictatorship of the same Pinochet (and other no less bloody dictators), we understand how accurate this artistic prophecy of Asturias turned out to be.

Kingdom of the Earth. Alejo Carpentier (Cuba)

In his historical novel “Earthly Kingdom,” Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier talks about the mysterious world of the Haitians, whose lives are inextricably linked with the mythology and magic of Voodoo. In fact, the author put this poor and mysterious island on the literary map of the world, in which magic and death are intertwined with fun and dancing.

Mirrors. Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina)

A collection of selected stories by the eminent Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges. In his short stories, he addresses the motives of searching for the meaning of life, truth, love, immortality and creative inspiration. Masterfully using symbols of infinity (mirrors, libraries and labyrinths), the author not only gives answers to questions, but makes the reader think about the reality around him. After all, the meaning is not so much in the search results, but in the process itself.

Death of Artemio Cruz. Carlos Fuentes (Mexico)

In his novel, Carlos Fuentes tells the life story of Artemio Cruz, a former revolutionary and ally of Pancho Villa, and now one of the richest tycoons in Mexico. Having come to power as a result of an armed uprising, Cruz begins to frantically enrich himself. To satisfy his greed, he does not hesitate to resort to blackmail, violence and terror against anyone who gets in his way. This book is about how even the highest and best ideas die out under the influence of power, and people change beyond recognition. In fact, this is a kind of answer to Asturias’ “Señor President”.

Julio Cortazar (Argentina)

One of the most famous works of postmodern literature. In this novel, the famous Argentine writer Julio Cortazar tells the story of Horacio Oliveira, a man in a difficult relationship with the world around him and pondering the meaning of his own existence. In “The Hopscotch Game,” the reader himself chooses the plot of the novel (in the preface, the author offers two reading options - according to a plan he specially developed or according to the order of the chapters), and the content of the book will depend directly on his choice.

City and dogs. Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru)

"The City and the Dogs" is an autobiographical novel by the famous Peruvian writer, winner of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature, Mario Vargas Llosa. The book takes place within the walls of a military school, where they are trying to make “real men” out of teenage children. The methods of education are simple - first, break and humiliate a person, and then turn him into a thoughtless soldier living according to the rules.

After the publication of this anti-war novel, Vargas Llosa was accused of betrayal and aiding Ecuadorian emigrants. And several copies of his book were solemnly burned on the parade ground of the Leoncio Prado cadet school. However, this scandal only added to the popularity of the novel, which became one of the best literary works of Latin America of the 20th century. It has also been filmed many times.

Gabriel Garcia Marquez (Colombia)

The legendary novel by Gabriel García Márquez, the Colombian master of magical realism and winner of the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature. In it, the author tells the 100-year history of the provincial town of Macondo, located in the middle of the jungle of South America. This book is recognized as a masterpiece of Latin American prose of the 20th century. In fact, in one work, Marquez managed to describe an entire continent with all its contradictions and extremes.

When I want to cry, I don’t cry. Miguel Otero Silva (Venezuela)

Miguel Otero Silva is one of the greatest writers in Venezuela. His novel “When I Want to Cry, I Don’t Cry” is dedicated to the lives of three young people - an aristocrat, a terrorist and a bandit. Despite the fact that they have different social backgrounds, they all share the same destiny. Everyone is in search of their place in life, and everyone is destined to die for their beliefs. In this book, the author masterfully paints a picture of Venezuela under military dictatorship, and also shows the poverty and inequality of that era.

The history of the countries of this continent is replete with outstanding historical figures.

Our compatriots, unlike foreign citizens, love to discuss political topics. We say about ourselves that Russians talk about women at work and politics at home. During the years of Soviet power, the place for such “political activity” was kitchens, where all the problems of the universe were discussed. Nowadays, the scale of the kitchen has grown to the mega-size of the Internet. And one of the constant topics of discussion remains the role of the individual in history, its influence on the life of the people. The theme is bottomless and eternal.

Marxism interpreted it simply and categorically, they say, the individual - it was always about the individual elevated to the pinnacle of power - expresses the interests, hopes and aspirations of the broadest masses of the people, that is, society, the people. This is exactly what G. Plekhanov wrote in his canonical article “On the Question of the Role of the Individual in History.” But such an interpretation did not fit in with the glaring truth of life, which inexorably convinced us: individuals radically influence the course of history, accelerating or slowing it down, and form the mentality of entire nations. The scale of a historical figure turns out to be a factor that sometimes affects entire eras - Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Napoleon, Stalin... How is this scale measured? Why, as the song says, do historical moments that “whistling at the temple” bring immortality to some individuals, and shame and dishonor to others?

I was probably not the only one who was struck by the monstrous decline in the quality of the “historical” personality towards the end of the Soviet era. To this day, one cannot listen to M. Gorbachev’s rantings about politics without bewilderment, in which he turned out to be a complete incompetence, rejected by the people. And practically the entire Politburo of that time set an example of political degradation. From “communists” everyone turned overnight into “democrats”, from internationalists - into burning nationalists... Of course, a place for them will be given to the dustbin of history. And at the same time, a person like Che Guevara, despite the failure of all his initiatives and the tragic end, has become almost a global symbol of youth.

My friends and acquaintances, who know that I had the opportunity to work for almost 15 years in the countries of Latin America, communicate, among other things, with Che Guevara, often ask why the history of the countries of this distant continent is replete with prominent historical figures, while other regions Are they experiencing a clear deficiency? Sometimes I limit myself to talking about one episode related to Ernest Che Guevara, who first came to the USSR in the late autumn of 1960. I then had the opportunity to work next to him as a translator. His popularity went beyond all standards. My numerous “Latin Americanist” colleagues very much asked to organize a separate meeting for them with the famous partisan. This coincided with his desire to “sit at home with ordinary Soviet people.” One day we all gathered around the table in a one-room apartment in a high-rise building on Kotelnicheskaya Embankment, and the main question to the eminent guest was: “Will the Cuban revolution survive?” His answer will be remembered forever:

“I don’t know whether she will survive or not, but I will do everything for her to win. If something irreparable happens, then do not look for me among the people who will find refuge in foreign embassies. Look for me among those who, with a machine gun in their hands, will die on the barricades, defending their ideal!”

Here it is, the key to answering the question of why Latin America has produced so many heroes.

Integrity of personality, inseparability of words and deeds, loyalty to the principles that initially guided the historical figure, unconditional and uncompromising struggle for high, publicly declared national ideals - the basis of historical immortality. In the countries of Latin America, more than in other regions of the world, the traditions of nobility of the indigenous population - the Indians, and elements of chivalry brought from Europe - live in the psychology of the people. The population of this vast and rapidly developing continent is almost unanimous in rejecting the concept of the “discovery of America.” In 1992, when the world celebrated the 500th anniversary of the arrival of Christopher Columbus's caravels on the shores of what is now the Dominican Republic in Latin America, the event was called the "Meeting of Two Cultures." In 2004, in Venezuela, it was decided to call the day October 12 - the date Columbus sailors landed on American soil - “Indian Resistance Day”, because the Spaniards sailed to a foreign country not with good intentions, but as conquerors. In South America, by the time Columbus appeared there, there were developed states and established civilizations - the Incas and Aztecs - with their own laws, morals and customs. Their destruction by European conquerors remains the greatest crime against humanity. Now scientists are trying, bit by bit, to restore the picture of barbarically destroyed civilizations.

In defending their homelands, the leaders of Indian states gave examples, on the one hand, of courage, and on the other, of naivety, resulting from their understanding of the essence of interhuman relations.

For example, the death of the Inca state was predetermined by the fact that the Incas’ language did not even contain the words “deception” and “treachery,” because there were no such concepts in their life.

The Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro had under his command an “army” of only 150 infantry, 67 cavalry, 2 cannons and 3 soldiers with firearms. He was opposed by an army of a hundred thousand people. But he simply deceived the Inca emperor Atahualpa by inviting him unarmed to negotiations. He trustingly arrived at the Spanish camp, where his retinue was mercilessly hacked to pieces, and the emperor himself became a prisoner. Such treachery was simply unthinkable among the Incas.

For the release of the emperor, the Spaniards demanded that the Indians fill a room with an area of ​​35 square meters and a height of 2.2 meters with gold. The simple-minded Indians almost fulfilled the ultimatum, but the bloodthirsty Pizarro still ordered the garrote of 33-year-old Atahualpa, fearing that his release would mobilize the Indians to fight. In the memory of the people, their suffering leader remained an intelligent and noble prisoner of honor. In a month he mastered the Spanish language, learned to beat his jailers at chess, and stoically accepted death. And F. Pizarro became an example of treacherous betrayal and unheard-of cruelty, a liar. He was killed there, in Peru, by the son of one of his closest associates.

A similar tragedy played out in Mexico, where the conqueror Hernan Cortes waged war with the Aztecs for several years. The forces were unequal, because many Indian tribes who were at enmity with the Aztecs joined the Spaniards, but the defenders of the city of Tenochtitlan - that was the name of the city of Mexico at that time - fought to the last drop of blood. When their emperor Montezuma called for submission to the conquerors, they finished him off by throwing stones at him. The fight was led by his nephew Cuauhtemoc, who became the national hero of what is now Mexico. He resisted to the end, but was nevertheless captured and subjected to severe torture by the Spaniards. They placed his feet on a brazier with hot coals and demanded to indicate the place where the gold was hidden. He was silent. Nearby, his close associate was tortured in the same way, who moaned loudly and asked to tell the Spaniards a secret. Cuauhtemoc, who despised the Spaniards for their greed for gold, only replied: “Do you really think that I am reclining on roses?” He was executed, but his statue adorns one of the central squares of the capital of Mexico, and every young resident of the country knows the legends about his struggle and death...

Presidents of Latin American countries, in whose veins Indian blood flowed or flows, invariably cause headaches for the external and internal enemies of their people.

In Mexico, for example, in 1861, Benito Juarez, a purebred Indian from the state of Oaxaca, was elected president. He was so talented that, despite his origin and unusually small height of 135 centimeters, he became one of the most prominent political figures in his country and throughout Latin America. He became famous for the fact that he was forced to resist the triple military intervention of England, France and Spain, which, under the pretext of forced collection of debts, landed their armed forces and occupied most of the country. And the French even brought one of the offspring of the Habsburgs - Maximilian - and declared him Emperor of Mexico. For six years, the stubborn Benito Juarez waged an unequal war with the interventionists, who finally could not withstand the pressure and were forced to evacuate. The ill-fated “emperor” was surrounded and captured. The court sentenced him to death. No matter how much the European monarchs and the Pope himself asked for him, Benito Juarez was adamant: “We are not shooting the personality of Maximilian, but the very idea of ​​​​the monarchy in Mexico!”

Currently, the post of president in Venezuela is occupied by Hugo Chavez, also an Indian by origin. He is as persistent and adamant in achieving his goals as his distant ancestors. This is already part of the national character. The secret of his political vitality lies in the fact that he raised the vast majority of his fellow citizens to public life, brought the government closer to ordinary people, and put an end to the long-term gap between the people and those in power. In response to accusations of dictatorial habits, Hugo Chavez reasonably replies that he won all the elections - presidential, parliamentary, municipal, of which he got more than any other head of any Latin American country. He even won a referendum, which allows him to stand as a candidate for the post of president of the country an unlimited number of times. This result can only be achieved if the politician really enjoys the support of the majority of the people. He relies exclusively on democratic procedures, but his numerous opponents are weaving anti-constitutional conspiracies against him.

Matching him is the President of neighboring Bolivia, Evo Morales, who is also the first Indian, an Aymara, to occupy the highest government position in the country's 400 years of history. It fell to him to solve the most difficult long-standing problems inherited from his predecessors. There is foreign dominance in the Bolivian economy, frightening social inequality, the threat of a split in the country, and contradictions between the indigenous Indian population and the influential white minority. In terms of its political instability and the number of coups d'etat, Bolivia was the champion among Latin American states. Evo Morales is in his sixth year at the helm of the troubled country. His mandate expires in 2015.

Together with Venezuela and Cuba, Bolivia is part of the core of the new political organization “Bolivarian Alternative for Latin America” - ALBA, which advocates the consolidation of the countries of the continent on the basis of independence from the United States, on the basis of increased social responsibility of governments to their people.

Many heroes of Latin America came from a special ethnic layer, which is known as “Creoles”. As a rule, they are understood as Spaniards who were born and forever remained to live in Latin American countries.

Among the Spanish conquistadors there were many vulgar robbers and cruel bandits who aimed only at getting rich quickly. But, besides them, those who wanted to settle there forever, away from the stifling power of Spain, also came to the New World. Throughout the colonial period, which lasted almost 300 - and for Cuba 400 - years, Creoles remained in a discriminated position in Latin America. Officials from the metropolis came to all the highest and most profitable positions in the colonial administration. At the same time, the entire real economy developed through the efforts of the Creoles and the indigenous Indian population. Creoles were, as a rule, educated people; they often traveled to Europe and followed world politics. For them, the liberation of the United States from British colonial dependence was a strong incentive to fight for freedom. They were only waiting for an opportune moment, which came in 1810, when Spain was subjected to Napoleonic invasion and its power in the colonies was in disarray. That's when the Creoles raised the banner of the national liberation war. Uprisings broke out here and there. In Mexico they were led by priests Miguel Hidalgo and Jose Morelos, in Argentina - San Martin, but still the most famous leader of the fight against Spain was Simon Bolivar, who was born into a wealthy Creole family in the city of Caracas and in his youth vowed to devote his entire life to the cause of liberation Latin America from the Spanish colonial yoke. Showing remarkable energy and will, starting from 1810, he constantly formed armies to defeat the Spanish forces, suffered defeats and won brilliant victories. The theater of his military and political operations were the territories of modern Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia - the country named after him in 1825.

He managed to inflict a decisive defeat on the Spaniards and put an end to the colonial period in continental Latin America. In the course of the struggle against the colonialists, Bolivar initiated the abolition of slavery in the liberated territories, adopted a law allocating land to the soldiers of the liberation army, and sought to create a system of democratic structure. In foreign policy, his main goal was to create a single confederation of all young Latin American states. To do this, he convened a congress in Panama in 1826, which, unfortunately, ended in failure. Because after liberation from the yoke of Spain, the separatist aspirations of individual military commanders and local leaders began to work in full force, accusing Bolivar of “Napoleonicism” and “dictatorial habits.” Bolivar refused all posts, retired to the provincial city of Cartagena and died there of tuberculosis at the age of 47.

The famous Colombian writer, Nobel Prize winner Gabriel García Márquez dedicated the novel “The General in His Labyrinth” to the last years of Bolivar’s life, where he writes with deep sympathy about the tragedy of the great Liberator, misunderstood by his generation.

The name of Simon Bolivar is surrounded by a heroic aura; it is not for nothing that Hugo Chavez called the current Venezuela a “Bolivarian Republic”. However, his name, by the way, is also associated with the tragicomic incidents that Soviet diplomacy got into in Latin American countries. The fact is that at one time the Encyclopedia Britannica commissioned Karl Marx, who was looking for work, to write several articles starting with the letter “B”. Among them were “Bolivar”, “Borodino” and others. Karl Marx, who was not very knowledgeable in history, famously scribbled the required articles, where he compensated for the lack of erudition with emotional assessments. He tore Simon Bolivar to smithereens, eventually calling him a “cowardly bastard.” Since Soviet diplomats did not dare to question the assessments of the “classic”, they carelessly began to quote him. This sparked massive street protests outside our embassies in Colombia, and our diplomats were pelted with rotten eggs and rotten fruit.

If our reader had read Karl Marx’s article “Borodino”, he would have had the same desire out of resentment...

The line of Creole heroes continued until Fidel Castro, whose father was a soldier in the Spanish colonial army who came to Cuba to suppress the national liberation struggle. But, in the end, he fell in love with the Cuban land and the Cuban people and stayed there forever, where his children - Fidel and Raul - became the leaders of a deep national liberation and social revolution under the slogan “Motherland or Death!”

The history of Latin America is colored by the intransigence of opposing forces, which determined the fierceness of the struggle between them and the abundance of tragic endings. In the struggle for national and social liberation, patriotic forces had to fight very strong enemies that were superior to them in power. First it was the Spanish conquerors and colonialists, and then the United States, which through the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 declared its claims for dominance in the Western Hemisphere. Given the obvious inequality of power, only heroism, dedication and sacrifice could bring victory.

This situation gives birth to heroes. Remember, Vladimir Vysotsky regretted that we have “few violent ones,” that is, heroes?

A brilliant example of such “violent” people in Latin America was, for example, Augusto Sandino, a simple, even inconspicuous worker in a gold mine in northern Nicaragua. His entire political school consisted of six years of living in Mexico, where in 1918 a rather radical bourgeois-democratic revolution with a strong anti-imperialist bias won, which had a great influence on him. When the movement for the liberation of Nicaragua from many years of American occupation began in the 1920s, A. Sandino took an active part in it, forming an armed detachment of peasants and workers. It soon became clear that the Americans managed to feed and intimidate the “regular” leaders of the patriots, who agreed to stop the fight against the invaders. That's when Augusto Sandino's finest hour came. He and his comrades refused to compromise with the Americans and declared war on them to the bitter end. For seven years the partisans fought the invaders, remaining invulnerable thanks to the support of the population and the impenetrable jungles of Central America. Neither threats nor promises had any effect on this outstanding rebel leader. The Americans had to get out of Nicaragua to save their face. But they left a puppet government there, in which the main role was played by their protege Anastasio Somoza, the future bloody dictator, then dressed in patriotic feathers. A. Sandino believed that with the departure of the occupying army his historical mission was completed. He disbanded his army in 1934, and trustingly came to the capital of the country, Managua, to clarify the details of establishing national peace. Here he was treacherously captured by A. Somoza’s henchmen and killed on his orders.

Augusto Sandino remained an example of a “chemically pure” patriot. Years passed, and in 1979 his followers, represented by the Sandinista National Liberation Front, won in Nicaragua. The dictator A. Somoza himself was killed. Even the liberal Franklin Roosevelt said about him: “Somoza is a son of a bitch, but he is our son of a bitch!”

Many films and books are dedicated to the Mexican leader of the peasant revolutionary masses, Francisco Villa, who is most often called “Pancho Villa.” An illiterate peasant managed to form a powerful “Northern Division” during the revolution of 1910-1918, which terrified the landowners. He was an extremely charismatic personality, a kind of Robin Hood, a defender of the interests and rights of the humiliated and insulted. All historical reference books certainly indicate that he invaded the United States and attacked the border city of Columbus, but they will not tell what prompted him to do this. In 1916, in this town, a local wealthy planter hired Mexican guest workers to clean a gas storage facility. The American himself stood nearby and threw an unextinguished cigar butt into the tank. There was an explosion and a fire broke out, in which several of Pancho Villa’s compatriots burned.

The then Mexican government did nothing to protect the interests of its citizens, and Pancho Villa decided on his own to take revenge on the Americans for the death of his brothers.

He attacked Columbus, killing several government officials.

Washington was furious. He disregarded all the norms of international law and sent a punitive expedition to Mexico led by General Pershing. For a whole year, the American army traveled through the deserts of northern Mexico in pursuit of Pancho Villa, but the population reliably sheltered their favorite. So the Americans returned empty-handed. Pancho Villa was treacherously killed in 1923, when he had already retired from military concerns and was building an agricultural cooperative that united 2 thousand of his former military comrades.

Chilean President Salvador Allende also showed incredible political courage and sacrifice. He became the leader of the country not as a result of a popular uprising or a coup at the top. No!

He was elected in a completely democratic way, in strict accordance with the laws of the country. But as soon as he encroached on the interests of American mining companies and nationalized the mining and processing of copper, a flurry of Washington’s rage fell upon him.

Chile became the target of an economic and financial blockade, and its president a candidate for overthrow or assassination. The CIA has accumulated a lot of experience in finding the executioners they need. In Chile, General Pinochet was appointed to this role, who carried out a treacherous coup against the legitimate president in September 1973. Salvador Allende died during the storming of La Moneda Palace. The official version is that he committed suicide, although it is possible that the putschists shot him.

And again, as time passed, Salvador Allende was counted among the host of martyrs for the interests of his homeland and people, and Pinochet found himself at the end of his life on trial for crimes committed during his dictatorship.

The martyrology of Latin American patriots is great. All of them were generated by the unusual historical conditions in which the countries of this continent were formed, nourished by its glorious traditions, and guided by the great goals of national and social good. That’s why they walked without looking back until their dying breath. They all belong to the eagle tribe, to those who in the Bible were called “the salt of the earth.”

Special for the Centenary

§ 34. Modern civilization of Latin America

Racial composition of Latin America

The population of Latin America was formed from three main racial and cultural components. Firstly, these are the indigenous inhabitants of the region - Indians belonging to the American branch of the Mongoloid race. Secondly, European settlers, most of them natives of Spain and Portugal, but there were also many Italians, Arabs, Germans, Russians, Jews, Poles, etc. Thirdly, these were Negroids - descendants of slaves brought from Africa to work on plantations . All major Latin American countries have a mixed racial composition. In addition to representatives of the larger races, there are many people here who belong to transitional races. Let us remember that the transitional races are mestizos, mulattoes and Sambos.

The population of any Latin American country is a mosaic of different racial types. White population, called in Latin America Creoles, quantitatively predominates in the lowland, island and southernmost countries - in Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, and Cuba.

Indian culture was able to survive only in hard-to-reach parts of the continent - in mountainous countries and the endless jungles of the Amazon and Orinoco. It was here that Indian ethnic groups were pushed away by Europeans from more comfortable areas of residence. Therefore, now mestizos and Indians predominate in the population of the mountainous and inland countries of Central and South America - these are Mexico and Honduras, Panama and Venezuela, Colombia and Chile, Paraguay and El Salvador. The most Indian countries are Peru and Bolivia. Here the share of Indians exceeds 40%, and the Indian languages ​​Quechua and Aymara, along with Spanish, have official status.

Negroids and mulattoes are most common in countries located on the Atlantic coast in the tropical and equatorial zone - in Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia (everywhere more than 15% of the population). They make up the absolute majority on the islands of the West Indies (except Cuba). This entire area is occupied by tropical plantation agriculture, which requires heavy physical labor. The Indians were unsuitable to take the place of such workers; they had little endurance and often died from disease or physical exhaustion. Therefore, the slave trade began to flourish in the Atlantic Ocean. Africans were either captured by force or purchased from local rulers with valuable gifts and taken to the New World. Since live goods were perishable and not all slaves survived the voyage, ships with slaves almost never sailed around South America and did not appear in the Pacific Ocean. The largest and most famous slave markets operated on the islands of the West Indies, such as Jamaica or Haiti. Already in the 19th century. former slaves became free, but the bulk of them continue to belong to the poorest classes. The black population gives Latin America its unique flavor. Neither the colorful carnival in Rio Janeiro, nor the Brazilian national football team can be imagined without blacks and mulattoes.

Ethnic composition of Latin America

Most Latin American countries are racially diverse but ethnically and religiously homogeneous. The reason for this is the migratory nature of the formation of the region's population. In each country, the migrant culture (Spanish, Portuguese, French, British, etc.) almost completely suppressed the local Indian culture. But new living conditions, the remoteness of the metropolises, and, although not so noticeable, the constant influence of the culture of the indigenous population, led to noticeable differences in the ethnic identity and cultural baggage of the peoples formed in Latin America.

The basis of the population of each country in the region is the titular ethnic group. In Brazil these are Brazilians, in Chile - Chileans, in Bolivia - Bolivians, in Cuba - Cubans, etc. Each of these ethnic groups has a complex racial composition. For example, 54% of Brazilians are Caucasian, 20% are mulatto, 19% are mestizo, and about 6% are Negroid. All of the largest ethnic groups in Latin America, except the Brazilians, are related to each other. After all, they were formed on the basis of the traditions of Iberian culture, the Spanish language, and the Catholic religion. An Argentine can easily understand a Cuban, and a Peruvian can understand a Mexican, which is why the cultural integration of the peoples of the region is so easy. Artists and musicians, artists and writers from one Latin American country feel welcome in another.

A large share of the ethnic composition of the population of Guyana is made up of people from India and Pakistan, and in Suriname - Javanese and other peoples of Indonesia who came to the continent during the colonial period as indentured workers.

Spanish in Latin America

The distribution area of ​​the Spanish language covers not only the territory of Spain, but also most of the countries of Latin America, except Brazil and a group of small island states. Spanish is recognized as official in 21 countries, including Spain, Mexico (more than 100 million people speak Spanish here alone), Argentina, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador , Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Dominican Republic, Cuba. About 40 million Hispanics live in the United States, primarily in the southwestern and southern states. Spanish is one of the working languages ​​of Latin American integration associations: the Organization of American States, MERCOSUR, the Central American Common Market, etc.

The role of Catholicism in Latin America

The leading religion in Latin America is Catholicism; 86% of the region's population adheres to this branch of Christianity.

The Roman Catholic Church encourages fertility. This is manifested both in the ban on abortion, the recognition of the inadmissibility of same-sex marriage, a negative attitude towards divorce, and in encouraging large families. The age-sex pyramids of Catholic countries are often easily recognized by their pointed outlines and wide bases. The countries of Latin America, which relatively recently entered the stage of demographic transition, in the second half of the twentieth century. dramatically increased their population. Now almost 250 million Catholics live in just two countries of the New World - Brazil and Mexico (Table 6). This is only slightly less than the number of European Catholics. The demographic center of gravity of the Roman Catholic world is rapidly shifting across the ocean to Latin America. It is no coincidence that in March 2013, the Archbishop of Buenos Aires, Argentine Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio was elected as the 266th Pope. For the first time in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, a non-European and Jesuit became pontiff, who also took the papal name Francis for the first time.

Table 6

Distribution of Catholics by region of the world, 2005

Table 7

The largest Catholic communities in the world

Note. Latin American countries are in italics.

Southern nature - hot sun, warm sea, bright vegetation - formed the personal qualities of representatives of Catholic peoples - expansiveness, sociability, pride, self-confidence, the desire to live widely. Catholicism supports family values ​​and patriarchal principles and is suspicious of innovations in public life. This is exactly how we imagine life for Latinos. Life, in the center of which, and in the literal sense - in the central squares of cities and settlements, is a Catholic church. Latin America surprises in the modern, largely atheistic world with its high percentage of believers and the large number of people attending religious services.

Catholicism in Latin America is sometimes closely fused with Indian and African cults, belief in spirits, and magical rituals that have survived to this day. For example, in Brazil there is an Afro-Christian cult macumba. But the mystical Afro-Christian cult is much more famous in the world voodoo, common in Haiti and Cuba. Another Afro-Christian belief system is Rastafarianism- originated in Jamaica among former African slaves. Adherents of this cult - Rastafarians, or Rastafarians, believe that representatives of the white race misunderstood the Christian Holy Scripture and usurped its interpretation. They see the solution in a return to the “golden age” of the black race. Rastafarians perceive Ethiopia, the oldest Christian country in Tropical Africa, as the promised land, deify the Ethiopian imperial family (the Solomonid dynasty, which considered King Solomon as its ancestor), and widely use the colors of the Ethiopian flag - red, yellow and green. Thanks to the musical style reggae The Rastafari movement spread throughout the world, losing much of its religious and racist basis.

Indian influence in Latin American culture

In recent decades, Indian cultural traditions have become fashionable in Latin America. They began to penetrate more and more persistently into architecture, music, and painting. Indian elements in painting first became established at the beginning of the twentieth century. in Mexico. They manifested themselves most clearly in mural paintings. Mural (from Spanish. muro- wall) - a picture depicted on the entire plane of the wall, made in the form of a fresco, graffiti or other type of monumental painting. The Mexican artist David Siqueiros (1896–1974) is recognized as an unsurpassed master of wall painting. His giant murals are perhaps the most striking and original thing that distinguishes Mexico City from other cities in the world. His compatriots, the painters Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo, gained worldwide fame.

The priority in the invention of tango is disputed by Argentines and Uruguayans, as well as the nationality of the “father of tango,” the famous guitarist and singer Carlos Gardel. His slim profile looks out from the walls of restaurants and bars in Buenos Aires and Montevideo. Tango was born as a rebellious challenge of disadvantaged, brave and courageous people who were not broken by life. Hypocritical morality declared obscene a dance performed by partners at a distance of a meter from each other. The dance, banned by the authorities, went underground and returned to the city outskirts, where it began its victorious march. But at this time the whole of Europe was already dancing tango. The high society of Montevideo became acquainted with tango only after a tour of a Parisian troupe.

Sources of information

1. Kaisarova L.I. Peoples of the world. People, cultures, ways of life. M., 2009.

2. Argentine tango in Russia and the CIS countries: www.nuevo.ru

3. Brazil and Brazilians through the eyes of Russians: www.brasileiro.ru

Questions and tasks

1. What explains the distribution of the Negroid population and mulattoes predominantly along the Atlantic coast?

2. Why are there so few blacks and mulattoes in the countries of the Southern Cone of Latin America: Argentina, Uruguay, Chile?

3. Which Latin American countries can be considered the most Indian? Why did such a composition of the population develop there?

4. Make a report about some work of Latin American culture (literature, music, painting, sculpture, architecture). Indicate in it the characteristic features of the culture of the region.

World of travel

1805

19.01.18 10:38

Climbing up the obstinate hills are ancient houses of cheerful colors, powerful Catholic cathedrals, welcoming harbors with shimmering turquoise waves, narrow streets onto which the balconies of buildings open, densely entwined with tropical flowers. All of these are cities in Latin America, preserving the memory of the colonial past and making generous concessions to the present and the future (in the form of skyscrapers winking at the sun with panoramic windows). Do you think that this top will be headed by the contrasting Rio de Janeiro or the Argentine dandy Buenos Aires? But no. We will show you other 10 cities in Latin America that you need to see live.

From the Valley of the Incas to the mausoleum of the great navigator: the most colorful cities in Latin America

Brazilian Salvador: up and down the passenger elevator

In Brazil's third largest city, Salvador, you can enjoy a wonderful mix of African, European and indigenous cultures from Latin America. It has some of the finest examples of colonial architecture in the Americas, and is surrounded by beautiful beaches. In Salvador's old central districts you'll find a collection of pastel-colored buildings dating from the time the Portuguese fortified their borders - now protected by UNESCO. This is the Upper Town, where, in addition to architectural monuments, there are many important institutions (some of them are also located in historical buildings), museums and temples. In the Lower Town you will have a unique shopping experience, descending into the middle of shopping centers on an unusual form of transport - the passenger elevator (Lacerda lift).

Lima: Pre-Columbian Artifacts and Gastronomic Wonders

Lima, the capital of Peru and a very interesting city, was once the richest in Latin America, a reflection of that era can be found in the main square, Plaza Mayor. The treasures of ancient pre-Columbian civilizations, exhibited at the National Museum and Larco Museum, are one of the main motivations of tourists. And here’s another great “bait”: the gastronomic wonders that famous chefs create in Lima (for example, Pedro Miguel Schiaffino and Gaston Acurio). The historical center of Lima is called the City of Kings, it captivates with colonial architecture, the modern Miraflores district attracts sun seekers and inveterate fashionistas, but Barranco is considered a haven for bohemians.

Cusco: Gateway to Machu Picchu

Speaking about Peru, we cannot forget about the main attraction of the country, the sacred valley of Machu Picchu, the most impressive and well-preserved Inca ruins, evidence of the stunning pre-Columbian era. This means that in our list of cities in Latin America we cannot do without Cusco; it is not for nothing that it has long been nicknamed “The Gateway to Machu Picchu”. Despite the fact that Cusco is often overcrowded with tourists, it has managed to maintain its face. So, before you go on an Inca mountain trek, admire the Baroque and Renaissance fortresses, temples, mansions and palaces, starting from the Plaza de Armas (the heart of Cusco and its central square). In recent years, this city has managed to emerge from the shadow of Lima and become the pearl of the country, because everything about it - from the former Temple of the Sun to the delicious Andean cuisine - is very popular with travelers.

Colombian Cartagena: a charmer with a special charm

This is where the heroine of the cult adventure comedy “Romancing the Stone” Joan Wilder (Kathleen Turner) was heading, but she mixed up the buses and ended up in the impenetrable jungle. Cartagena is a colorful city in Colombia that attracts more tourists than the country's capital, Bogota. And there are reasons for that! This is a charming city with an ancient waterfront protected by fortresses, photogenic cobbled alleys and colorful squares. All this makes Cartagena (full name Cartagena de Indias) one of the most romantic cities in Latin America. Named after Cartagena in Spain, the magnificent old town (St. Peter's Church, University, Palace of the Inquisition, Main Square, Cathedral) is filled with colonial charm and is protected by UNESCO.

Santiago: a futuristic dandy against the backdrop of the Chilean mountains

The Chilean capital Santiago seems to be a much more modern city - a kind of futuristic dandy - compared to other participants in our top. It's a thriving metropolis with a beautiful backdrop (snow-capped mountain peaks), trendy galleries and prominent skyscrapers (thanks to the economic boom of the last decade). However, there are vineyards, colonial mansions, neoclassicism, and what a cuisine in Santiago! The cozy restaurants serve world-class cuisine and excellent local wine. Exquisite boutiques will satisfy any seasoned shopaholic. Situated in the Maipo Valley, framed by the stunning Andes Mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west, Santiago has withstood invasions, earthquakes and dictatorships to become one of Latin America's most popular cities.

Valparaiso: colorful houses scattered along the slopes

Compared to Santiago, which is in demand among tourists, another pearl of Chile - Valparaiso - fades slightly, but in vain. Valparaiso is a very beautiful port city, easily accessible from the capital (about two hours away). Bright multi-colored houses, surrealistically scattered along the slopes of the hill, are the calling card of Valparaiso. Many of the historic buildings have been renovated to become trendy restaurants and comfortable boutique hotels. The city has several bohemian quarters with perfectly preserved 19th-century mansions. Due to the fact that the streets of Valparaiso fit between steep cliffs, rugged coastline and hills, there are a lot of stairs, narrow pedestrian streets, if you feel sorry for your legs, you can use the funiculars.

Asuncion: Paraguayan Jewel

The beginning of the next city in Latin America was laid by the traveler, conquistador from Spain Juan de Salazar, who landed here in 1537. Now Asunción is the capital of Paraguay, filled with attractions that are best explored by walking through the ancient center. About half a million people live in the city, so no fuss or traffic jams! Buildings from the 16th-18th centuries, cathedrals and churches built by the Jesuits, and even the Orthodox Church of the Intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, built by Russian engineers in the 1920s, await you. But, of course, the most majestic is the National Cathedral, which takes on a completely different, otherworldly appearance at dusk with successful lighting. The city can be reached by car, plane or boat. Every July, a fair is held in the Paraguayan capital, where local food products, vegetables, fruits are presented, and national melodies are played - a very colorful festival!

Uruguayan capital Montevideo: art deco art nouveau, baroque

In one of the latest episodes of The Blacklist (now in its 5th season), the FBI's most wanted criminal, Raymond Reddington (James Spader), recommended that his interlocutor (who was in trouble) flee to Montevideo. Why, the concierge of the underworld, handling billions of dollars, won’t give bad advice! The capital of Uruguay remains underestimated: when wanting to visit the cities of Latin America, people choose the more “promoted” Rio or Buenos Aires. However, Montevideo is an outstanding metropolis, a major industrial port (which does not prevent the city from having more than 14 miles of luxurious beaches), a historical, carefully restored center with Art Deco or Art Nouveau houses and a Baroque cathedral from 1726. There is even a bronze copy of Michelangelo's David in the city. Montevideo (the translation of the name is “view from the hill”) arose as a fortress at the entrance to La Plata Bay: the Spaniards defended themselves from smugglers. In modern Montevideo there are monuments and theaters, museums and skyscrapers, as well as the Centenario stadium, which hosted the FIFA World Cup (it used to accommodate 120 thousand people, after reconstruction there were 80 thousand seats left).

Santo Domingo: Residence of the Viceroys and Lighthouse of Columbus

There is probably no other city in Latin America (and perhaps not on Earth either) that would be so associated with the name of Christopher Columbus as Santo Domingo (the capital of the Dominican Republic). This jewel of the country, nestled in the south of Haiti, was discovered in 1496 by Christopher Columbus's brother Bartolomeo and named (by him) New Isabella. True, in 1502 the city received a name in honor of St. Dominic. Santo Domingo is the oldest existing settlement founded by Europeans in the Americas. Its buildings are a real excursion into the history of urban planning: Arabic style, Gothic, Romanesque, Renaissance. The Rosario Chapel dates back to the end of the 15th century, the Alcazar Castle (residence of the viceroys) was built by order of Christopher Columbus's son Diego in 1514. Until 1922, the ashes of Columbus himself were housed in the ancient Cathedral of Santa Maria la Menor. Nowadays, for the great navigator, a grandiose structure was erected (in the image and likeness of the Indian pyramids) - the Columbus Lighthouse. It was opened in 1992, its construction required more than 70 million dollars. The remains of the discoverer (at least what is considered his ashes) are placed in the Mayak mausoleum, guarded by a permanent guard of honor. The historical center (the so-called Colonial City) of Santa Domingo is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Ecuadorian Loja and Podocarpus National Park

To finish the list of Latin American cities to visit, we want to be a kind of “dark horse”. You may not have heard of this small town with a population of 130 thousand. This is Loja (Ecuador), occupying the southern part of the Cordillera Real mountain range, located near Peru (180 km to the border). The ancient city has interesting architecture and design, there are stunning churches and squares, museums and botanical gardens with 800 species of plants.

But the main advantage of Loja is different: next to the city there is the amazing Podocarpus National Park. The biological diversity of the park is amazing, because it is the intersection of four ecological zones: the Pacific, Amazon, Southern Andes and Northern Andes.

The park has many hiking trails, a fantastic landscape with hills and waterfalls, and is home to 560 species of birds and 68 species of mammals, including many endemics.