General information
The Himalaya mountain system at the junction of Central and South Asia is over 2900 km long and about 350 km wide. The area is about 650 thousand km². The average height of the ridges is about 6 km, the maximum 8848 m is Mount Chomolungma (Everest). There are 10 eight-thousanders - peaks over 8000 m above sea level. In the northwest of the western chain of the Himalayas there is another highest mountain system - the Karakoram.
The population is mainly engaged in agriculture, although the climate allows for the cultivation of only a few types of cereals, potatoes and some other vegetables. The fields are located on sloping terraces.
Name
The name of the mountains comes from ancient Indian Sanskrit. "Himalaya" means "Abode of Snow" or "Kingdom of Snows".
Geography
The entire Himalayan mountain range consists of three distinctive steps:
- The first - the Pre-Himalayas (locally called the Shivalik Range) - is the lowest of all, the mountain peaks of which do not rise more than 2000 meters.
- The second stage - the Dhaoladhar, Pir Panjal and several other smaller ranges - is called the Lesser Himalayas. The name is quite arbitrary, since the peaks already rise to respectable heights - up to 4 kilometers.
- Behind them are several fertile valleys (Kashmir, Kathmandu and others), serving as a transition to the highest points of the planet - the Great Himalayas. The two great South Asian rivers - the Brahmaputra from the east and the Indus from the west - seem to embrace this majestic mountain range, originating on its slopes. In addition, the Himalayas give life to the sacred Indian river - the Ganges.
Records of the Himalayas
The Himalayas are a place of pilgrimage for the strongest climbers in the world, for whom conquering their peaks is a cherished goal in life. Chomolungma did not conquer immediately - since the beginning of the last century, many attempts have been made to climb to the “roof of the world.” The first to achieve this goal was the New Zealand climber Edmund Hillary in 1953, accompanied by a local guide, Sherpa Norgay Tenzing. The first successful Soviet expedition took place in 1982. In total, Everest has been conquered about 3,700 times.
Unfortunately, the Himalayas also set sad records - 572 climbers died trying to conquer their eight-kilometer heights. But the number of brave athletes does not decrease, because “taking” all 14 “eight-thousanders” and receiving the “Crown of the Earth” is the cherished dream of each of them. The total number of “crowned” winners to date is 30 people, including 3 women.
Minerals
The Himalayas are rich in mineral resources. In the axial crystalline zone there are deposits of copper ore, placer gold, arsenic and chromium ores. The foothills and intermountain basins contain oil, flammable gases, brown coal, potassium and rock salts.
Climatic conditions
The Himalayas are the largest climate division in Asia. To the north of them, continental air of temperate latitudes predominates, to the south - tropical air masses. The summer equatorial monsoon penetrates all the way to the southern slope of the Himalayas. The winds reach such strength there that they make it difficult to climb the highest peaks, so Chomolungma can only be climbed in the spring, during the short period of calm before the onset of the summer monsoon. On the northern slope, winds from the northern or western directions blow throughout the year, coming from the continent, which is supercooled in winter or very warm in summer, but is always dry. From northwest to southeast, the Himalayas extend approximately between 35 and 28° N, and the summer monsoon almost does not penetrate into the northwestern sector of the mountain system. All this creates large climatic differences within the Himalayas.
The most precipitation falls in the eastern part of the southern slope (from 2000 to 3000 mm). In the west, their annual amounts do not exceed 1000 mm. Less than 1000 mm falls in the zone of internal tectonic basins and in internal river valleys. On the northern slope, especially in the valleys, the amount of precipitation decreases sharply. In some places, annual amounts are less than 100 mm. Above 1800 m, winter precipitation falls in the form of snow, and above 4500 m snow occurs throughout the year.
On the southern slopes up to an altitude of 2000 m, the average temperature in January is 6...7 °C, in July 18...19 °C; up to an altitude of 3000 m, the average temperature of the winter months does not fall below 0 ° C, and only above 4500 m the average July temperature becomes negative. The snow line in the eastern part of the Himalayas passes at an altitude of 4500 m, in the western, less humidified part - 5100-5300 m. On the northern slopes, the height of the nival belt is 700-1000 m higher than on the southern ones.
Natural waters
High altitude and heavy precipitation contribute to the formation of powerful glaciers and a dense river network. Glaciers and snow cover all the high peaks of the Himalayas, but the ends of the glacial tongues have a significant absolute height. Most of the Himalayan glaciers belong to the valley type and reach no more than 5 km in length. But the further east you go and the more precipitation there is, the longer and lower the glaciers go down the slopes. The most powerful glaciation is on Chomolungma and Kanchenjunga, and the largest glaciers of the Himalayas are formed. These are dendritic type glaciers with several feeding areas and one main trunk. The Zemu glacier on Kanchenjunga reaches 25 km in length and ends at an altitude of about 4000 m. The Rongbuk glacier, 19 km long, slides down from Qomolungma and ends at an altitude of 5000 m. The Gangotri glacier in the Kumaon Himalayas reaches 26 km; one of the sources of the Ganges originates from it.
Especially many rivers flow from the southern slope of the mountains. They begin in the glaciers of the Greater Himalayas and, crossing the Lesser Himalayas and the foothills, reach the plain. Some large rivers originate from the northern slope and, heading towards the Indo-Gangetic Plain, cut through the Himalayas with deep through valleys. These are the Indus, its tributary the Sutlej and the Brahmaputra (Tsangpo).
The Himalayan rivers are fed by rain, glaciers and snow, so the main maximum flow occurs in the summer. In the eastern part, the role of monsoon rains in nutrition is great, in the west - snow and ice of the high mountain zone. The narrow gorges or canyon-like valleys of the Himalayas are replete with waterfalls and rapids. From May, when the most rapid melting of snow begins, until October, when the summer monsoon ends, rivers rush down from the mountains in rapid streams, carrying away masses of debris that they deposit when leaving the Himalayan foothills. Monsoon rains often cause severe floods on mountain rivers, during which bridges are washed away, roads are destroyed and landslides occur.
There are many lakes in the Himalayas, but among them there are none that can be compared in size and beauty with the Alpine ones. Some lakes, for example in the Kashmir Basin, occupy only part of those tectonic depressions that were previously filled entirely. The Pir Panjal range is known for numerous glacial lakes formed in ancient cirques or in river valleys as a result of their damming by moraine.
Vegetation
On the abundantly moistened southern slope of the Himalayas, altitudinal zones from tropical forests to high-mountain tundras are exceptionally pronounced. At the same time, the southern slope is characterized by significant differences in the vegetation cover of the humid and hot eastern part and the drier and colder western part. Along the foot of the mountains from their eastern extremity to the course of the Jamna River stretches a peculiar swampy strip with black silty soils, called the Terai. The Terai are characterized by jungles - dense thickets of trees and shrubs, almost impenetrable in places due to vines and consisting of soap trees, mimosa, bananas, low-growing palm trees, and bamboos. Among the terai there are cleared and drained areas that are used for the cultivation of various tropical crops.
Above the terai, on the damp slopes of the mountains and along river valleys up to an altitude of 1000-1200 m, evergreen tropical forests grow of tall palms, laurels, tree ferns and gigantic bamboos, with many vines (including the rattan palm) and epiphytes. Drier areas are dominated by less dense forests of salwood, which loses its leaves during the dry season, with rich undergrowth and grass cover.
At altitudes above 1000 m, subtropical species of evergreen and deciduous trees begin to mix with the heat-loving forms of the tropical forest: pines, evergreen oaks, magnolias, maples, chestnuts. At an altitude of 2000 m, subtropical forests give way to temperate forests of deciduous and coniferous trees, among which only occasionally are representatives of subtropical flora, for example, magnificently flowering magnolias found. The upper border of the forest is dominated by conifers, including silver fir, larch, and juniper. The undergrowth is formed by dense thickets of tree-like rhododendrons. There are many mosses and lichens covering the soil and tree trunks. The subalpine belt replacing forests consists of tall grass meadows and thickets of shrubs, the vegetation of which gradually becomes lower and sparse as it moves to the alpine belt.
The high-altitude meadow vegetation of the Himalayas is unusually rich in species, including primroses, anemones, poppies and other brightly flowering perennial herbs. The upper limit of the alpine belt in the east reaches an altitude of about 5000 m, but individual plants are found much higher. When climbing Chomolungma, plants were discovered at an altitude of 6218 m.
In the western part of the southern slope of the Himalayas, due to lower humidity, there is no such richness and diversity of vegetation; the flora is much poorer than in the east. There is a complete absence of the Terai strip, the lower parts of the mountain slopes are covered with sparse xerophytic forests and thickets of shrubs, higher up there are some subtropical Mediterranean species like evergreen holm oak and golden-leaved olive, and even higher up coniferous forests of pine trees and magnificent Himalayan cedar (Cedrus deodara) predominate. The shrub undergrowth in these forests is poorer than in the east, but the meadow alpine vegetation is more diverse.
The landscapes of the northern ranges of the Himalayas, facing Tibet, are approaching the desert mountain landscapes of Central Asia. The change in vegetation with height is less pronounced than on the southern slopes. From the bottoms of large river valleys up to the snow-covered peaks, sparse thickets of dry grasses and xerophytic shrubs spread. Woody vegetation is found only in some river valleys in the form of thickets of low-growing poplars.
Animal world
The landscape differences of the Himalayas are also reflected in the composition of the wild fauna. The diverse and rich fauna of the southern slopes has a distinct tropical character. Many large mammals, reptiles, and insects are common in the forests of the lower slopes and in the terai. Elephants, rhinoceroses, buffalos, wild boars, and antelopes are still found there. The jungle is literally teeming with various monkeys. Particularly characteristic are macaques and thin-bodied animals. Of the predators, the most dangerous for the population are tigers and leopards - spotted and black (black panthers). Among the birds, peacocks, pheasants, parrots, and wild chickens stand out for their beauty and brightness of plumage.
In the upper mountain belt and on the northern slopes, the fauna is close in composition to that of Tibet. The black Himalayan bear, wild goats and sheep, and yaks live there. Especially a lot of rodents.
Population and environmental issues
Most of the population is concentrated in the middle zone of the southern slope and in intramountain tectonic basins. There is a lot of cultivated land there. Rice is sown on the irrigated flat bottoms of the basins; tea bushes, citrus fruits, and grapevines are grown on the terraced slopes. Alpine pastures are used for grazing sheep, yaks and other livestock.
Due to the high altitude of the passes in the Himalayas, communication between the countries of the northern and southern slopes is significantly complicated. Some passes are crossed by dirt roads or caravan trails; there are very few highways in the Himalayas. The passes are accessible only in summer. In winter they are covered with snow and completely impassable.
The inaccessibility of the territory has played a favorable role in preserving the unique mountain landscapes of the Himalayas. Despite the significant agricultural development of low mountains and basins, intensive grazing of livestock on mountain slopes and the ever-increasing influx of climbers from around the world, the Himalayas remain a refuge for valuable species of plants and animals. The real “treasures” are the national parks of India and Nepal - Nandadadevi, Sagarmatha and Chitwan - included in the World Cultural and Natural Heritage List.
Attractions
- Kathmandu: temple complexes of Budanilkantha, Boudhanath and Swayambhunath, National Museum of Nepal;
- Lhasa: Potala Palace, Barkor Square, Jokhang Temple, Drepung Monastery;
- Thimphu: Bhutan Textile Museum, Thimphu Chorten, Tashicho Dzong;
- Temple complexes of the Himalayas (including Sri Kedarnath Mandir, Yamunotri);
- Buddhist stupas (memorial or reliquary structures);
- Sagarmatha National Park (Everest);
- National parks Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers.
Spiritual and health tourism
Spiritual principles and the cult of a healthy body are so closely intertwined in various directions of Indian philosophical schools that it is impossible to draw any visible division between them. Every year, thousands of tourists come to the Indian Himalayas precisely to get acquainted with the Vedic sciences, the ancient postulates of the teachings of Yoga, and to improve the health of their body according to the Ayurvedic canons of Panchakarma.
The pilgrims' program necessarily includes visiting caves for deep meditation, waterfalls, ancient temples, and bathing in the Ganges, a river sacred to Hindus. Those suffering can have conversations with spiritual mentors, receive from them parting words and recommendations for spiritual and physical cleansing. However, this topic is so broad and versatile that it requires a separate detailed presentation.
The natural grandeur and highly spiritual atmosphere of the Himalayas captivate the human imagination. Anyone who has at least once come into contact with the splendor of these places will always be obsessed with the dream of returning here at least once more.
- About five or six centuries ago, a people called the Sherpas migrated to the Himalayas. They know how to provide themselves with everything necessary for life in the highlands, but, in addition, they are practically a monopoly in the profession of guides. Because they are truly the best; the most knowledgeable and the most resilient.
- Among the conquerors of Everest there are also “originals”. On May 25, 2008, the oldest climber in the history of climbing, a native of Nepal, Min Bahadur Shirchan, who was 76 years old at that time, overcame the path to the summit. There have been cases when very young travelers took part in expeditions. The latest record was broken by Jordan Romero from California, who climbed in May 2010 at the age of thirteen (before him, fifteen-year-old Tembu Tsheri Sherpa was considered the youngest guest of Chomolungma).
- The development of tourism does not benefit the nature of the Himalayas: even here there is no escape from the garbage left by people. Moreover, in the future there may be severe pollution of the rivers that originate here. The main problem is that these rivers provide millions of people with drinking water.
- Shambhala is a mythical country in Tibet, about which many ancient texts tell. Buddha's followers believe in its existence unconditionally. It captivates the minds of not only lovers of all kinds of secret knowledge, but also serious scientists and philosophers. In particular, the most prominent Russian ethnologist L.N. had no doubt about the reality of Shambhala. Gumilev. However, there is still no irrefutable evidence of its existence. Or they are irretrievably lost. For the sake of objectivity, it should be said: many believe that Shambhala is not located in the Himalayas at all. But in the very interest of people in the legends about her lies proof that we all really need the belief that somewhere there is a key to the evolution of humanity, which is owned by bright and wise forces. Even if this key is not a guide on how to become happy, but just an idea. Not yet open...
The Himalayas in art, literature and cinema
- Kim is a novel written by Joseph Kipling. It tells the story of a boy who admires British imperialism while surviving the Great Game.
- Shangri-La is a fictional country located in the Himalayas, described in the novel Lost Horizon by James Hilton.
- Tintin in Tibet is one of the albums of the Belgian writer and illustrator Hergé. Journalist Tintin investigates a plane crash in the Himalayas.
- The film "Vertical Limit" describes the events taking place on Mount Chogori.
- Several levels in Tomb Raider II and one level in Tomb Raider: Legend are located in the Himalayas.
- The film "Black Narcissus" tells the story of an order of nuns who founded a monastery in the Himalayas.
- The Kingdom of the Golden Dragons is a novel by Isabel Allenda. Most of the events take place in the Forbidden Kingdom, a fictional state in the Himalayas.
- Drachenreiter is a book by German writer Cornelia Funke about Brownie and a dragon traveling to the "Edge of Heaven" - a place in the Himalayas where dragons live.
- Expedition Everest is a themed roller coaster at Walt Disney World Resort.
- Seven Years in Tibet is a film based on the autobiographical book of the same name by Heinrich Harrer, which describes the story of the adventures of an Austrian mountaineer in Tibet during the Second World War.
- G.I. Joe: The Movie is an animated film that tells the story of the Cobra-La civilization, which survived the Ice Age in the Himalayas.
- Far Cry 4 is a first-person shooter story that tells about the fictional region of the Himalayas, dominated by a self-proclaimed king.
Geography test starts
Are the following statements true?1) Are mid-ocean ridges formed in compression zones of the earth’s crust?
2) Are seismic and volcanic belts formed at the boundaries between lithospheric plates?
a) Only 1 is correct
b) Only 2 is correct
c)Both are correct
d)Both are wrong
2.Which of the three listed geographical objects are located in zones of extension of the earth's crust?
a) Alps
b)Lake Baikal
c) Himalayas
d) Lake Nyasa
e) San Andreas Fault
y) Mid-Atlantic Ridge
3.Establish a correspondence between lithospheric plates and geographical objects.
LITHOSPHERIC PLATE OBJECT
1) African plate a) Madagascar island
2) Eurasian plate b) Tasmania Island
3) Indo-Australian plate c) Chukotka Peninsula
4) North American Plate d) Yamal Peninsula
1. 6 -7 billion; 2. 4.5 - 5 billion; 3. 1 - 1.5 billion 4. 700 -800 million
Which line shows the correct sequence of geological eras?
1. Archean - Paleozoic - Proterozoic - Mesozoic - Cenazoic;
2. Proterozoic - Paleozoic - Mesozoic - Archean - Cenazoic;
3. Archean - Proterozoic - Paleozoic - Mesozoic - Cenazoic;
4. Archean - Proterozoic - Paleozoic - Cenazoic - Mesozoic;
The thickness of the continental crust is:
1. less than 5 km; 2. from 5 to 10 km; 3. from 35 to 80 km; 4. from 80 to 150 km.
Where is the earth's crust thickest?
1. on the West Siberian Plain; 3. at the bottom of the ocean
2. in the Himalayas; 4. in the Amazonian lowland.
Part of Eurasia is located on a lithospheric plate:
1. African; 3. Indo-Australian;
2. Antarctic; 4.Pacific.
Earth's seismic belts are formed:
1. at the boundaries of the collision of lithospheric plates;
2. at the boundaries of the separation and rupture of lithospheric plates;
3. in areas where lithospheric plates slide parallel to each other;
4. all options are correct.
Which of the following mountains are among the most ancient?
1. Scandinavian; 2. Ural; 3. Himalayas; 4. Andes.
On which line are mountain structures placed in the correct order by time of origin (from ancient to young)?
1. Himalayas - Ural Mountains - Cordillera; 3. Ural Mountains - Cordillera - Himalayas;
2. Ural Mountains - Himalayas - Cordillera; 4. Cordillera - Ural Mountains - Himalayas.
What landforms are formed in areas of folding?
1. mountains; 2. plains; 3. platforms; 4. lowlands.
Relatively stable and leveled areas of the earth's crust underlying modern continents are:
1. continental shallows; 2. platforms; 3. seismic belts; 4. islands.
Which statement about lithospheric plates is true?
1. lithospheric plates move slowly along the soft plastic substance of the mantle;
2. continental lithospheric plates are lighter than oceanic ones;
3. the movement of lithospheric plates occurs at a speed of 111 km per year;
4. The boundaries of lithospheric plates exactly correspond to the boundaries of the continents.
If it is established on the map of the structure of the earth’s crust that the territory is located in the area of the new (Cenozoic folding), then we can conclude that:
1. there is a high probability of earthquakes;
2. it is located on a large plain;
3. At the base of the territory there is a platform.
How does the oceanic crust differ from the continental crust:
1. absence of a sedimentary layer; 2. absence of a granite layer; 3. absence of a granite layer.
Arrange the rock layers of the continental crust from bottom to top:
1. granite layer; 2. basalt layer; 3. sedimentary layer.
Read the text.
On May 21, 1960, an earthquake occurred in the city of Concepcion, located on the territory of the state of Chile, followed by a series of tremors. Buildings collapsed, killing thousands of people under the rubble. On May 24 at six o'clock in the morning, tsunami waves approached the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka.
Why do earthquakes often occur in this area? Give at least two statements.
Option 1.
1 . The figure shows the type of earth's crust:
a) mainland;
b) oceanic;
c) transitional.
2 . The sign indicates the breed:
a) limestone;
b) granite;
c) basalt.
3
a) the bed of the ocean;
b) the ocean bed and the continent.
4 . In the collision zone of lithospheric plates, the following are formed:
b) deep-sea trenches.
5 . Number 2 on the map marks:
a) Indo-Australian plate;
b) Eurasian plate;
6 . The Andes Mountains were formed in the interaction zone of the North American lithospheric plate:
a) from South America;
b) from North American;
c) from Indo-Australian.
7 . If the terrain of the territory is flat, then at its base, as a rule, is located:
a) folded area;
b) platform.
8 . A seismically active region of the Earth is:
a) area of modern glaciation;
b) area of modern volcanism;
c) an area of catastrophic natural phenomena.
Continue the sentence:
9 . The younger the folding, the ___________________ the mountains.
10 . What facts prove the movement of plates? What processes and phenomena are observed in plate interaction zones?
Test work on the topic “Lithosphere of the Earth”
Option 2.
Choose one correct answer.
1 ..jpg" align="left" width="96" height="48">
2 . The sign in the figure indicates the breed:
b) sand and clay
c) granite.
3 . The type of earth's crust shown in the figure is located under:
a) continents;
b) oceans;
c) under continents and oceans.
4 . The thickness of the earth's crust shown in the figure is:
5 . In the zone of divergence of lithospheric plates, the following are formed:
a) mid-ocean ridges;
b) deep-sea trenches;
6 . Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes can occur:
a) only in zones of collision of lithospheric plates;
b) only in zones of divergence of lithospheric plates;
c) both in collision zones and in zones of divergence of lithospheric plates.
7 . The Himalayas formed in the interaction zone of the Eurasian lithospheric plate:
a) from North America;
b) from Indo-Australian;
c) from African.
8 . If the terrain of the territory is mountainous, then at its base, as a rule, is located:
a) folded area
b) platform.
9. Continue the sentence :
The older the folding, the _____________ the mountains.
Think about the question and formulate and write down a complete answer.
10 . What tectonic structure typically underlies the Earth's plains? What is its structure?
Why is Everest so tall? It turns out that the explanation is very simple: take a tube of toothpaste, squeeze and bend it. This is roughly the same thing that happened when India crashed into Asia: at the site of the collision, the Himalayas grew, which became larger and larger. Today, most of the world's hundred highest peaks are located there.
The surface of the Earth is divided into several platforms, which slowly press on top of each other. The thinner ocean floor readily sinks under thicker continental plates, but when two continental plates collide, subduction does not always occur: they cannot decide who will be on top and who will be below. As a result, instead of the crust sinking into the mantle, it goes in the opposite direction - up towards the heavens.
Geologists have long been interested in the question of whether mountain building as a result of the collision of continents can be considered a process that follows the same pattern. It is difficult to answer, since in fold zones rocks are crushed and mixed - and no one has yet been able to accurately reconstruct the landscape at a specific point in time.
It’s the same problem with the Himalayas. Why, over 20 million years of furious relations between India and Eurasia, did the Himalayas not crumble into dust, but, on the contrary, only grew?
Luis Moresi from the University of Melbourne (Australia) and his colleagues have developed a computer model of continental collisions. She showed that when one continent has thick or buoyant crust that blocks subduction, the other continent shrinks like a tube of toothpaste and bends around the blockage, resulting in a complex array of geophysical features (see video).
The model's readings were tested on what happened in Australia hundreds of millions of years ago, when a small continent crashed into its eastern coast and was swallowed up, and mountain ranges formed at the site of the collision. It turned out that the model actually explains some mysterious features of the landscape. For example, she accurately reproduced oroclines (the bends of mountain ranges) and showed that they are the result of compression and folding.
With bated breath, scientists turned to the Himalayas. The model argues that when India pushed Eurasia, China and Southeast Asia initially resisted (did not agree to subduction) and were therefore pushed aside. After this maneuver, India continued to move deeper into Eurasia, causing the Himalayas to rise higher and higher: India played the role of a kind of bulldozer.
Without this, India would almost certainly have stopped moving northward 20 million years ago, and the Himalayas today would be more like the Alps: they would have stopped growing and begun to collapse.