Texture is the surface quality of an object. It can be smooth and rough.

Texture can be perceived by touch or visually. Touch and vision are closely related. For example, when you see polished metal, you visually react to it and know that its surface is smooth without touching it. This is because when you see something that looks smooth, your mind reminds you of past experiences when you touched a smooth surface.

Therefore, the texture affects not only how the interior looks, but also how it is perceived. Rough textures look warm and natural, smooth textures look cold and formal.

Texture also has visual weight. Smooth reflective surfaces tend to be lighter than rough matte surfaces. Polished marble cladding will look lighter than wood paneling.

Rough textures can also visually zoom in on an object and reduce its size. So, for example, wood paneling in a large room can balance the space and make it cozier, while wood paneling in a small room can make it smaller.

Texture also affects color: smooth, glossy surfaces look brighter than rough, opaque ones.

Texture perception is influenced by scale, distance, and light. The smaller the texture surface scale, the smoother it will appear. Even a rough texture can appear relatively smooth when viewed from a distance.

Directional lighting enhances texture, creating shadows and sparkle. Soft ambient light, on the other hand, minimizes contrast and shadows, making the texture hard to read.

Smooth, shiny surfaces reflect light, are in focus and attract attention. Matte and medium-rough surfaces absorb light and scatter it unevenly, so they appear duller than colored smooth surfaces. Very rough surfaces lit directly will create different shadows.

Contrast also affects texture. Texture on a smooth, uniform light background will be perceived more clearly than the same texture on a light texture background. If a texture is placed on a rough uneven dark background, it will appear thinner and smaller in size.

On smooth surfaces, dirt and abrasions are clearly visible, but can be easily removed from it. Rough surfaces hide dust but are more difficult to clean.

Texture can be used effectively to add interest and character to a room. However, since textures tend to fill the space visually, in small rooms it is better to use fine texture and in small amounts.

Texture is especially effective in monochromatic interiors, where it is used to add depth and create an eye-catching design.

In modern interiors, the bold use of texture gives a stunning effect. Rough unfinished masonry may be used along with stainless steel, glass or polished concrete. By combining contrasting textures, you can create variety, but this requires a lot of space.

Texture and pattern are closely related. An ornament is a decorative element that decorates a surface and is usually obtained by repeating motifs. When you look at an ornament from a distance, the motifs become so small that you don't see them as separate elements and perceive them as texture.

The pattern can be structural or applied. Structural is inherent in building or mounting surfaces. The butt is decorative and is added after the surface is completed.

Patterns have been part of our lives since the very beginning. They are present everywhere and play an important role in everyday life, having cultural, religious and philosophical significance. Nature often becomes a source of inspiration for decorative patterns in interior design.

An effective interior design tool, pattern, like texture, fills a space, so don't overdo it: competing patterns won't make a space more interesting, only clutter it up and create clutter.

If you like simplicity, then use the pattern as an accent. Enliven a calm interior with accessories: several different pillows with a bright pattern will brighten up the room without creating chaos.

If you are crazy about patterns, here are a few tips to help you keep your interior harmonious and balanced:

Use the scale of the pattern depending on the size of the room. If the room is small, it is better to stick to a small pattern. Keep in mind that it will feel like a texture or even solid in a large space. In a large room, you can use large patterns or medium-sized patterns.

Combine different patterns with a common color in the room, or the same patterns in different sizes or colors.

The texture of the front surface (its appearance, due to the nature of processing) is an important feature of facing products, which makes it possible to more or less reveal the decorative possibilities of the stone.

Depending on the chosen texture, the pattern and color of the stone, if desired, can be completely revealed or, conversely, shaded. The diverse relief of some textures creates a peculiar chiaroscuro pattern on the surface of the stone, which gives a pleasant appearance even to those products that do not have a high natural decorative effect.

The main types of textures are regulated by the relevant standards for facing stone products and, depending on the method of production, are divided into two groups: abrasive and chipping. Abrasive textures include sawn (types A, B and Bi), sonicated, ground, polished and polished, chipping textures - “rock” (“fur coat”), bumpy, corrugated, grooved, dotted and heat-treated. Let us dwell briefly on the following invoices.

Rice. 37. Sawn texture type A (on marble)

a - obtained by sawing with diamond strip saws;

Rice. 38 Sawn texture type B (on granite)

Rice. 39. Sawn texture type B1 (on granite)

Rice. 40. Ultrasonic texture (on granite)

Rice. 41. Polished textures (on granite)

a - rough polished; b - finely ground

Rice. 42. Polished texture (on granite)

Rice. 43. Polished texture (on granite)

Sawn A (Fig. 37, a and b) - obtained without special processing, as a result of sawing the stone with a diamond tool (strip or circular saws). The surface is characterized by rare single irregularities with a maximum height (depth) of up to 3 mm against the background of a normal flat field with a uniform roughness of 4 class III with an area of ​​up to 90–95% of the total surface. Depending on the diamond tool used, irregularities may appear as rare straight-line scratches, vertical and horizontal steps (when sawing with diamond strips) or arcuate grooves (when sawing with circular saws). When using high-quality diamond tools and carefully observing the rational sawing schedule, the quality of this texture can be significantly improved, practically eliminating the mentioned irregularities, which makes it possible to bring it closer to a polished texture. Scope of sawn texture A - products from rocks of medium strength and low strength for exterior cladding of buildings.

Sawn B (Fig. 38) - also formed without special processing, by sawing the stone with smooth steel strip saws with shot. The surface is characterized by the presence of pronounced individual irregularities in the form of arcuate, less often rectilinear grooves up to 3 mm deep against the background of a normal flat field with a uniform roughness of 1-2 classes with an area of ​​up to 80% of the total surface. Separate areas of the surface may be contaminated with traces of iron oxides in the form of rusty spots and stripes, some of the furrows are filled with compacted sludge. Scope of sawn texture B - products made of durable rocks for flooring, finishing underground passages, lining the basement parts of buildings, etc.

Sawn B 1 (Fig. 39) - obtained by cleaning the surface with the texture of sawn B by sandblasting or chemical method (usually by acid), as a result of which it differs from the texture of sawn B by the absence of traces of iron oxides and sludge. The scope is the same as that of the sawn texture type B.

Treated with ultrasound (Fig. 40) - is formed as a result of ultrasonic treatment of surfaces with textures like sawn A, sawn B, sawn B. The surface relief is similar to the relief of the above textures. Characteristic for the texture of the front surface treated with ultrasound is the presence of a weak matte sheen with a fairly clearly identified color, pattern and structure of the stone. Scope - products mainly from durable crystalline rocks for flooring, lining the basement parts of buildings, etc.

polished texture

Polished (Fig. 41) - obtained by processing the front surface of the stone with a grinding tool. Depending on the grain size of the tool used, three types of ground textures can be distinguished: coarse ground, medium ground and fine ground. With a coarsely ground texture, the surface has a uniform roughness with traces of processing in the form of arc-shaped grooves up to 0.5 mm deep (roughness class I-2). The pattern, color and structure of the stone in this texture are extremely weak, the surface, as a rule, has a much lighter tone than after processing in subsequent grinding and polishing operations. A medium-ground texture is also characterized by a uniformly rough surface, although in this case tool marks on the surface are barely noticeable. The unevenness of the relief with this texture is up to 0.005 mm, which corresponds to the roughness of the 6th class.

Finely ground textures

Finely ground textures are characterized by a uniformly rough surface without visible traces of processing (roughness class 7). The pattern, color and structure of the stone with these textures are revealed more fully than with coarse and medium polished textures, at the same time, the rock acquires a darker shade.

The field of application of polished textures is products made of rocks of strong and medium strength for laying floors and making external and internal cladding.

polished texture

Polished (Fig. 42) - performed by processing the polished surface of the stone with a fine-grained finishing (polishing) tool. It is characterized by a smooth matte surface of dark tones without any traces of processing with a full revealing of the color, pattern and structure of the stone (surface roughness corresponds to class 8). The field of application of the polished texture is products made of rocks of medium strength and durable for flooring and interior cladding of buildings and structures.

polished

Polished (Fig. 43) - achieved by processing a polished surface with a polishing tool (sometimes the process is called gloss rolling). This texture is characterized by a mirror gloss of the surface (up to 150-200 relative units on the gloss meter scale) with a clear reflection of the surrounding objects. The polished texture fully reveals the color, pattern and structure of the stone (surface roughness corresponds to 9-10 classes).

Rice. 50. Surface microrelief

a - with a point texture; b - with heat-treated texture

The field of application of polished textures is products of their rocks of strong and medium strength for internal lining of walls and columns (less often flooring), as well as products from durable rocks for external lining of basement parts of buildings, etc.

"Rock" ("fur coat")

"Rock" ("fur coat") - is obtained as a result of manual or mechanized chipping of a stone by a spike around the perimeter or splitting it along two opposite faces with indenters (knives) of splitting machines. The “rock” texture is characterized by a rough relief of the front surface (wide chips and sharp ridges) with a height of irregularities of 50-200 mm, without visible traces of processing (Fig. 44). Scope - products mainly from durable rocks for lining the basement parts of buildings, slopes of embankments, retaining walls, elements of garden and park architecture, etc.

Hilly (Fig. 45) - achieved by surface treatment with a tongue or narrow scarpel. With a bumpy texture, the surface has a uniform treatment (alternation of bumps and depressions with relief irregularities up to 50 mm) with hardly visible traces of processing. The scope is the same as that of the “rock” texture.

corrugated

Corrugated (Fig. 46) - performed by surface treatment with a Trojan or diamond circular saws. The corrugated texture is characterized by a uniformly rough surface with continuous parallel grooves up to a mm deep. Scope - products mainly from rocks of medium and low strength for facing pylons, exterior walls of buildings, columns, etc.

furrowed

Furrowed (Fig. 47) - is formed as a result of mechanized processing of the stone surface with a lamellar bush hammer or rolling cutter. With a furrowed texture, the surface has a uniformly rough character with parallel intermittent furrows up to 2-3 mm deep. Scope - products made of rocks of strong, medium and low strength for the construction of stairs (steps), embankment decoration (parapets, slopes), laying floors of metro track platforms.

dotted

Spot (Fig. 48) - obtained by mechanized processing of the surface of the stone with a cross bush hammer. The surface acquires a uniformly rough character with traces of bush hammering and evenly spaced protrusions (relief height up to 2 mm). Scope - products made of durable rocks for lining the basement parts of buildings, flooring, stairs (steps), etc.

heat treated

Heat-treated (Fig. 49) - is formed during surface treatment with a thermal tool. The texture is characterized by a surface with traces of peeling with smoothed protrusions of individual sections and relief irregularities up to 10 mm (Fig. 50). Scope - products made of durable rocks (amenable to heat treatment) for facing embankments (parapets, slopes), stairs (steps), elements of underground passages, etc.

When considering an object as a whole, the eye perceives its geometric shape and structure. Almost all visible elements are limited on all sides by shells or planes of various shapes. This means that each element, each object has a certain spatial form. The primary elements of the spatial form of objects are geometric appearance, size, position in space, mass, texture, texture, decor, color and chiaroscuro.

Geometric view. This is a property (element) of the form as a whole and its parts, determined by the ratio of its dimensions in three coordinates of space, as well as the nature of its surface (straight or curvilinear, broken line). Depending on the predominance of one of the three dimensions, the following types of shape are distinguished: volumetric, planar and linear. The volume view is characterized by three sizes. A planar view is characterized by a sharp decrease in one of the dimensions. In a linear form, one dimension prevails over the other two, even though they are relatively small.

Form lines. It is human nature to relate emotionally to the phenomena and objects around him. The idea of ​​peace and movement, light and heavy, passive and active, a person associates with various types of lines, their slope and character (Fig.).

The horizontal line, for example, is associated with the concept of rest, static, passivity. It contributes to the visual reduction of the figure vertically.

The vertical line - energetic and hot - expresses the desire to rise, visually lengthens the shape.

The sloping line is associated with instability, falling, and the closer it is to the horizontal, the more it is associated with confidence and calmness.

Otherwise, a diagonal line is perceived. It acts as a force that overcomes passivity, expresses movement, dynamics. Distinguish between right and left diagonals. They are perceived differently. The right one is the ascending diagonal, the left one is the falling diagonal. Diagonal is typical for asymmetrical clothing, soft and hard draperies, etc.

A wavy (smooth) line characterizes the uniformity of movement, softness, fluidity. Smooth lines are used in clothes of complex styles.

A broken line is associated with uneven movement, abrupt changes in events, with ups and downs.

The spiral is associated with the concept of rotation, and the arc is associated with overcoming some obstacles and subsequent take-off.

To create the shape of products, the designer uses geometric lines in a complex, i.e. in various compositional subordinations, combinations. In this case, one of the lines should play the role of the main, leading one, on the basis of which the whole composition is built.

Form size. This is the extent of the form and its elements along three coordinates. The size of the form is determined in relation to the size of a person, the size of products of other forms or individual elements of the same form. When comparing forms, their equality or inequality is seen. The size of the form can visually increase or decrease when comparing large and small. Small details in a large form emphasize its size, while large ones, on the contrary, reduce it.

position in space. This is a property of the form, determined by its location among other forms, as well as relative to the observer in the system of frontal, profile and horizontal planes. An object whose shape approaches a rectangular parallelepiped having two equal dimensions can occupy three typical positions with respect to the observer: frontal, profile and horizontal. A cube with all three dimensions equal has only one type position. The same can be said about objects whose shape approaches these figures.

The mutual arrangement of forms in space in relation to each other and the viewer can also be considered on another basis - according to the location relative to each other or the viewer is closer, further, higher, lower, left, right. In relation to the horizon line, forms can be located above, below or at its level.

Mass of the form. This is the visually perceived amount of material of the whole object or its parts, which can fill the space within the geometric shape. The mass of the mold depends on the size of the object. A larger form visually corresponds to a large mass. The perception of mass also changes depending on the geometrical form of the form. The greatest visually perceived mass is possessed by forms approaching a cube and a ball, and all those whose dimensions in three coordinates are equal or close to equal. Forms approaching linear have a minimum mass, therefore narrow and long clothes always seem less massive than short and wide ones.

The perception of mass changes depending on the degree of filling of forms. As the degree of filling increases, objects appear more massive. The most massive objects in which there are no voids. The change in the visually perceived mass of the form depends, in addition, on the color, texture and texture of the material from which it is made, and on the size of the objects adjacent to it. The visually perceived mass of the form increases if there are smaller objects next to it. If their sizes increase, then the mass of this form visually decreases. All these illusory changes in the mass of forms are often used in product design.

Texture(lat. factum - processing, structure). Texture - the visible structure of the surface of the form. The texture is smooth, shiny and glossy, matte and rough, coarse or fine-grained, etc. Each material (metal, glass, fabric, paper, sand, stone, etc.) has its own texture. Its perception depends on the distance of the viewer to the surface under consideration, the nature of the lighting (if it is lateral, then the roughness is clearly visible).

The volume and mass of the shape of products depend on the texture of the material. Strengthening the texture of the surface increases the volume and mass of products. A smooth and shiny surface, on the contrary, gives lightness and visually reduces volume. The texture of the material can even influence the perception of the proportional relationship of the form.

Texture(lat. texturg - fabric, connection, structure). Texture - signs of internal structure visible on the surface of the material. For example, products made of wood, stone, and leather have an expressive texture. Various textures are used as a decorative tool that reveals the aesthetic originality of the material.

Color. This is the property of bodies to cause certain visual sensations in accordance with the spectral composition of the light reflected, transmitted or emitted by them. There are physical, physiological, emotional and psychological properties of color.

The physical properties of color include hue, brightness (lightness), and saturation. Hue is what makes it possible to distinguish one color from another: red, green, blue, etc.

Brightness, or lightness, is characterized by the amount of reflected or transmitted light. Each color has a certain lightness. Orange is lighter than red, blue is darker than blue, brown is darker than pink, etc.

All colors are divided into achromatic and chromatic. Achromatic - white, gray, black - do not have selective absorption and differ from each other in lightness. Chromatic - spectral and mixed - are distinguished by color tone, lightness and saturation.

Saturation is the percentage of a pure spectral color in a given color. It is defined as a percentage. The saturation of the corresponding spectral color is taken as 100%, and white or another achromatic color is taken as zero. Thus, spectral colors have saturation equal to one, while achromatic colors have zero saturation. The most saturated colors are the main spectral and magenta. They are called clean, open, intense. The colors located between the main spectral ones are intermediate (yellow-green, blue-violet, orange-yellow), less saturated, they are called complex, calm, restrained, soft. The saturation of any color decreases when white or black is added to it. Colors, the saturation of which is reduced by adding white, are called bleached (pink, lilac, etc.). Colors that have been reduced in saturation by adding black are called tinted.

The physiological properties of color are its ability to affect the human body, for example:

intense red color causes too much excitement, increases blood pressure;

green promotes the expansion of capillaries, lowers blood pressure, relieves visual fatigue, soothes; yellow stimulates brain activity;

blue and violet have a beneficial effect on the lungs and heart, increasing their endurance;

gray and black colors can cause an oppressed, depressed state.

The emotional and psychological properties of color are associated with physiological effects and all sorts of illusions and associations. So, according to the nature of perception, all colors are divided into warm and cold. Warm colors - red, orange, yellow, yellow-green - are associated with the sun, fire, warmth. They are bright, catchy, dynamic, increasing the size and volume. Cold colors - blue, blue, violet, green-blue - are associated with water, ice, cold. These colors are calmer, less prominent.

Distinguish colors light and heavy. All light and cold colors are classified as light, dark and warm colors are classified as heavy. Colors are divided into "protruding" - light and warm and "retreating" - dark and cold. The properties of color to bring closer or remove, to make objects lighter or heavier, to increase or decrease their volume are widely used in fine and decorative arts. In particular, the spatial properties of color make it possible to create a visible depth of the image on a flat canvas of the picture.

Due to the associative nature of perception, colors evoke different feelings and sensations in a person, special emotional moods, evoke some images:

red is perceived as exciting, hot, the most active and energetic, courageous, passionate, the color of valor, strength, power;

green - calm, moderate and refreshing - gives the impression of softness, pleasant and beneficial peace; a symbol of spring, fertility, youth, freshness, joy, hope, memories;

yellow - exciting, revitalizing, cheerful, cheerful, fussy, flirtatious, somewhat daring, the color of fun and jokes, a symbol of sunlight, warmth, happiness;

orange - hot, cheerful, cheerful, fiery, cheerful;

blue - light, fresh and transparent; white - light, cold and noble, a symbol of purity.

Color perception is influenced by a number of factors that can change the apparent color of bodies. The change in their color is often associated with the spectral composition of light sources. So, in the light of incandescent lamps, there are more yellow rays than in sunlight, so yellow colors become more saturated, reds brighten, the hue becomes yellow, blues darken, lilacs become yellow, and violets become red. The color of the material also depends on the texture of the surface. Colors on glossy shiny surfaces appear lighter, on matte surfaces they appear darker (satin and velvet).

The perception of color also depends on the phenomena of contrast. Distinguish between simultaneous and sequential contrasts. In turn, the simultaneous contrast can be a contrast in lightness and color, or chromatic. Simultaneous contrast in lightness is that colors located on or near a dark background lighten, and darken on a light background or next to it. White on a black background is especially bright, while black on white is a deep black. The same gray pieces of fabric on a black, white and gray background will look different. On a white background, the fabric seems darker, on black - lighter, on gray it will hardly change.

A variety of contrast in lightness is also due to the marginal, or borderline, contrast. On the border of light and dark, light becomes even brighter, and dark darkens, which creates the impression of unevenly colored areas. To destroy the edge contrast, the planes are separated by a contour line.

Simultaneous chromatic contrast is a change in color depending on another color surrounding it. The color always changes in the direction opposite (complementary) to the surrounding color. For each chromatic color, another chromatic can be found, which, when mixed with the first in certain proportions, gives an achromatic. These two chromatic colors are called complementary. On the color wheel, complementary colors are located at opposite ends of the diameters. Additional pairs of colors are: red and bluish-green, orange and cyan, yellow and blue, green and magenta, etc.

As a result of chromatic contrast, gray color on different backgrounds acquires an unequal apparent color. So, on a red background, the gray pattern turns green, on green it turns red, on blue it turns yellow, etc.

Sequential contrast occurs when two colors are viewed not simultaneously, but alternately. The second color will appear to be a complementary color to the first.

Color is not only an element of form, but also an important means of unifying and harmonizing its other elements. The color of industrial products is chosen taking into account their functional purpose and methods of operation, design, material, composition.

Chiaroscuro. It is a consequence of the different angle of incidence of light rays from the light source onto the form and is characterized by the distribution of light and dark areas on its surface. The formation of light and shade effects depends on the shape of the object, the relief and texture of the material, the direction of incidence of rays from the light source. Chiaroscuro on clothes, for example, is largely due to the relief of the form. The relief is created by folds, overlays, seams, tails, drapery, etc. The abundance of details and draperies overloads the form with chiaroscuro effects and increases its volume. If chiaroscuro is formed by rare vertical lines, the volume of the form visually decreases: the effect of visual illusions operates.

Decor(fr. decor, lat. decoro - I decorate). This is an element of the form of products in the form of an ornament or pattern.

Ornament(Latin ornamentum - decoration) - a drawing (pattern) built from organized elements. There are two main types of ornament: geometric and pictorial.

The geometric ornament is built from abstract geometric shapes (squares, triangles, rhombuses, circles), as well as strokes, dots and lines, which, alternating in a certain order, allow you to get patterns from the simplest to the very complex. Geometric ornament is widely used to decorate modern products made of glass, ceramics, fabrics and other materials.

The pictorial ornament reproduces specific objects of the real world - plants, animals, things. Fabrics, knitwear, glass, ceramics, etc. are widely decorated with pictorial ornaments.

37. Types of materials based on mineral binders. The main types of materials based on mineral binders include concrete, reinforced concrete, mortars, silicate (based on airborne lime), asbestos-cement, gypsum and paints. There are also materials for special purposes, including heat-insulating, roofing, for hydraulic structures, roads. Concrete - artificial stone obtained as a result of mixing, shaping (laying) and subsequent hardening of a rationally selected mixture of mineral binder, water and aggregate. Basically, concretes are classified according to their average density: especially heavy with an average density above 2500 kg / m³, containing dense and heavy aggregates (cast iron shot, steel filings and grains, barite); heavy, containing dense fine and coarse aggregates (sand, crushed stone or gravel). According to the functional purpose, concretes of general (for load-bearing and enclosing structures of residential, public, industrial buildings) and special (heat-insulating, road, hydraulic, decorative, etc.) purposes are distinguished. Reinforced concrete are obtained at the construction site or in the factory, combining concrete and steel reinforcement into a single whole. Reinforcement involves the installation of steel reinforcement in those places m-la (concrete), which are subject to tensile loads during operation. They are perceived by the working load-bearing reinforcement. Monolithic reinforced concrete structures are erected directly at the construction site. To do this, install formwork made of metal, wood or other materials that correspond to the future shape of the structure. Then they put the reinforcement, supply and lay the concrete mixture. The arch forms of buildings and structures made of reinforced concrete monoliths are very diverse and are distinguished by a peculiar plasticity. At present, we produce prefabricated concrete and reinforced concrete materials for all the main parts of modern buildings and structures - foundations and frames, walls, partitions, ceilings, coatings, stairs, as well as for special types of construction (underground, road, hydraulic engineering, bridge building). ). Construction solutions obtained from various mineral binders (cement, lime, gypsum and their mixtures - cement-lime, lime-gypsum, as well as cement-clay, etc.), fine aggregates and additives that improve the properties of the material. TO silicate Claim stone materials include brick and concrete. Asbestos-cement materials izg from special Portland cement grades 400 and 500 and asbestos fibers, which significantly strengthen the structure of cement stone. Gypsum m-ly obtained from gypsum dough and mineral or organic finely ground aggregates. Paints based on mineral binders contain alkali-resistant pigments and a small amount of additives.

Texture - these are the features of the structure of sedimentary rock, determined by the way space is filled, the location of the constituent parts and their orientation relative to each other. The texture of the rock is formed from the stage of sediment accumulation. Primary textures that emerged during sedimentation reflect the state of the environment at the time of accumulation of sedimentary material and the results of its interaction with sediment. They can transform into post-depositional stages. Secondary textures arise in an already formed rock during the processes of catagenesis, metagenesis and hypergenesis.

Textures largely predetermine the physical properties of rocks, including strength, compressibility, filtration capacity, etc., which are not the same in different directions. Textures are studied mainly visually - in outcrops, pits, core samples, sometimes under a microscope.

Distinguish textures of the surface of the layer and intralayer.

Layer surface textures

Occur on the sediment surface during a short-term change in the state of the sedimentation environment, during precipitation and the vital activity of organisms. A change in the state of the environment leads to their complete destruction; therefore, a necessary condition for their preservation is their rapid burial under new sediments.

Ripple signs are a system of parallel rollers perpendicular to the direction of water or air flows. They form on the surface of sandy, silty, clayey-calcareous and dolomite sediments. There are symmetrical and asymmetric signs of ripples.

Asymmetric - are formed in air and water environments under the influence of wind and currents, and symmetrical - arises as a result of unrest. The eolian ripples are distinguished by a significant predominance of the length of the cross section of the ridge over its height, while these values ​​differ slightly in the ripples of the currents. The wave length of the ripple is 10-20 cm, but not more than 100 cm. Water ripples are formed at a depth of up to 150-200m, and the distance between the ridges varies from units to tens of centimeters, increasing with increasing depth.

Drying cracks are formed in clay or lime sediment accumulated in the aquatic environment during its subsequent drying in air. The crack cavities are filled with foreign material. In plan they form polygons, in profile they are wedge-shaped cavities extending downward from the surface. Penetration depth from fractions of a cm to a meter or more. Width on the surface - 3-5cm.

The imprints of raindrops and hailstones are rounded depressions with borders along the periphery. Diameter up to 12-15mm (more for hail), depth up to several mm. They are formed mainly on the surface of clay sediments.

Traces of animal life are preserved on wet, mainly calcareous or clayey sediments in the form of paw prints, footprints, slip marks, etc. They often persist even after the transformation of sediments into rock.

The signs associated with the deformation of the sediment surface are formed as a result of the activity of water flows, sea currents, etc. As a result, grooves, depressions, furrows, scratches and other formations appear on the surface. After their overlapping with fine-grained deposits, casts (bas-relief marks) are formed at the lower boundary of the new layer, which remain after the lithification of the sediment.

Bas-relief signs appear on the surface of the formation and are called hieroglyphs (or hieroglyphs), which means sacred writings, since the nature of many of them remained unsolved for a long time.

If the bas-relief signs are the result of a purely mechanical effect on the sediment, then they are called mechanoglyphs. They often look like grape-shaped formations - the result of uneven erosion by a strong current or the accumulation of a semi-liquid sediment; or parallel cuts, hatching, linearly elongated beds, sometimes intersecting and very bizarre.

If the signs are the result of traces of organisms, they are called bioglyphs.

Among them, the most common are fucoids and chondrites, similar to plant twigs, or tangled strands of algae. These moves are in the form of rollers, and inside - curved sticks, flagella, threads. The cavity is filled with matter precipitating from solutions or sediments from the overlying layer. Sometimes they are filled with sediment processed by silt-eaters and have a lighter shade than the rock itself, or they can be filled with fecal lumps.

Intralayer textures

The most common are layered and massive textures, less often there are textures associated with the vital activity of organisms, with landslide and other phenomena.

Massive texture - characterized by a disorderly arrangement of its constituent parts in the rock. Due to this, the rock has the same physical properties in different directions. When split, fragments of irregular shape are formed.

Layered textures - due to the alternation of layers of several differences of sedimentary rocks. Layering can be caused by changes in the size of clasts, the orientation of sedimentary material, the content of nodules, accumulations of organic matter, shells, etc.

Based on the location of sedimentary material in the rocks, horizontal and oblique bedding are distinguished.

Horizontal layering is a typical texture of sedimentary rocks. In it, the layers are arranged parallel to each other and to the layering planes. It is formed by changing sedimentation environments in conditions of slow, uniform movement or in a state of relative rest. According to the thickness of the layers, they are distinguished: massively layered (more than 50 cm), thick layered (more than 5 cm), medium layered (2-5 cm), thin layered (0.1-2 cm) and micro layered (less than 0.1 cm) . Horizontal layering is characteristic of rocks of various compositions.

Periodic (rhythmic-cyclic) flysch layering is an alternation of layers or packs with a uniform set of rocks that only slightly change from pack to pack. The reason for this is that the course of sedimentation is due to a regular change in natural phenomena, mostly periodic. They reflect the progressive course of the process not in a circle, but in a spiral. The alternation of layers can be continuous, or discontinuous in case of different deposits or erosion. Sometimes this periodicity can be small (microstratification), more often the thickness of rhythms is measured in tens of centimeters or meters, and thousands of meters in large sections (systems, stages).

Wavy layering is characterized by the curvilinear shape of the layers, giving in the section a pattern of waves, sometimes more, sometimes less symmetrical. This type of layering is associated mainly with wave oscillations, less often with translational motion of the sedimentation medium.

Cross bedding is less common. It occurs mainly in sandstones, silty and carbonate rocks. Characteristic features are the location of the layers at an angle to the layering planes, and the orientation can change over a short distance.

False bedding (schistosity, Liesegang phenomenon, shelliness). The same factors that bring out an initially imperceptible reservoir separation may, over time, obscure it and create false layering.

If tectonic pressure in mountainous areas is directed at an angle to the bedding plane, then oblique splits (cleavage, schistosity) and, accordingly, separation are created. Or groundwater and solutions, spreading at an angle, and unevenly depending on the structure, texture and porosity of the rock, also create a bizarre false layering, and iron hydroxides most often fall out along the cracks. Repeated precipitation of matter along cracks, as a result of which the rock can disintegrate into "iron shards" nested in each other, has received the name "Liesegang phenomenon".

Underwater creep textures can form in a variety of non-solidifying sediments, but are most common in finely interbedded sandy, silty, argillaceous, or calcareous deposits. Sliding can start at a slope of 1-3 0 . As a result, small folds are formed ranging in size from units to tens of centimeters, but often up to hundreds of meters.

Among the intralayer textures, there are post-diagenetic textures that arose in the already formed sediment. The most common are stillolite and funky textures.

The stillolite texture is perpendicular to the stratification in cross section, it appears as sawtooth seams that cut through the rock and are oriented mainly parallel to the stratification, although vertical and diagonal ones are encountered. The height of the teeth ranges from fractions to 2-3 cm or more. The seams themselves are filled with hardly soluble, finely dispersed clastic material, clay, organic charred matter, iron sulfides and oxides.

Such textures are characteristic of carbonate rocks, but are also found in clastic ones. There are several points of view regarding the genesis of their origin, however, most scientists believe that they arose as a result of selective dissolution of rocks under pressure, and insoluble components were concentrated in the seam cavity.

Funtik texture in some way resembles stillolite. This is a rare texture of the articulation of the underlying and overlying layers. On one surface there are protrusions of a conical shape, and on the second there are recesses of the same shape ("funnies"). Their height varies from fractions to several centimeters. Textures cover layers up to half a meter thick. They are characteristic of marls, argillaceous limestones and clays. They arise during recrystallization and a decrease in the volume of the rock under the weight of the overlying rocks. Formations of this type are found in deposits of various ages, where thin layers of limestones occur among clayey rocks.